The Relationship Between Life Regrets And Well-Being: Systematic Review

Life regrets are profound feelings of remorse or disappointment about past decisions or missed opportunities that significantly impacted one’s life trajectory.

These regrets often involve major life domains such as education, career, relationships, or personal growth.

While regrets can serve as a catalyst for positive change, they may also negatively impact mental health, potentially contributing to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and reduced life satisfaction if not effectively managed.

Rutledge, J. A., Williams, J. D., & Barlow, M. A. (2024). The relationship between life regrets and well-being: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1515373. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515373

Key Points

• Life regrets are consistently associated with diminished well-being across various psychological, emotional, and physical indicators.
• The impact of life regrets on well-being varies based on factors like age, gender, coping mechanisms, and individual differences in interpretation and appraisal.
• Protective factors that may mitigate the negative effects of life regrets include goal engagement/disengagement, positive reappraisal, downward social comparisons, and emotional stability.
• This research has limitations such as predominantly WEIRD samples, inconsistent measurement of regret across studies, and mostly cross-sectional designs.
• Understanding the relationship between life regrets and well-being has important implications for theories of aging and well-being, as well as potential interventions to promote healthy aging.

Rationale

Life regrets are a common human experience, with research indicating that 90% of individuals typically experience severe life regrets (Wrosch et al., 2005).

Given their prevalence and potential impact on well-being across the lifespan, it is important to understand how life regrets affect various aspects of psychological, emotional, and physical health.

While previous research has examined life regrets and well-being, findings have been mixed and there is a lack of synthesis across studies.

This systematic review aims to summarize and analyze the existing literature on the association between life regrets and well-being to provide a comprehensive understanding of this relationship and identify areas for future research.

Method

The authors conducted a systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

They searched four databases (PsycINFO, Web of Science, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, and ERIC) in July 2023 using the search term “regret*” with no limiters. The review was pre-registered on the Open Science Framework.

Search strategy and terms

The search strategy was based on an informal literature review to obtain common terms related to life regret.

The authors searched for “regret*” in any field available in the databases. No limiters were used.

The search strategy was validated by identifying a set of articles that fully met the inclusion criteria and confirming they were all in the initial search results.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Studies were included if they: 1) Measured life regret specified as life regret, long-term regret, severe regret, or greatest regret; 2) Included a measure of well-being; 3) Had adult participants (18+ years); 4) Were empirical and quantitative; 5) Were written in English.

Studies were excluded if they: examined short-term/decisional regret or anticipated regret; recruited children/adolescents; or were qualitative, systematic reviews, or theoretical papers.

Extraction of Data

Two independent screeners extracted data in parallel to ensure reliability.

Extracted information included citation details, sample characteristics, methods, results, discussion points, and study quality assessment.

The data extraction process had high inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.93).

Statistical measures

As this was a systematic review rather than a meta-analysis, no statistical analyses were conducted.

The authors implemented a bottom-up approach to identify themes based on the number of articles, total themes, and importance of conclusions from each theme.

Results

Sample characteristics:

• Samples were predominantly white individuals from the United States
• About half of studies had equal gender representation; others had >70% female samples
• One-third reported education levels, with most participants holding bachelor’s degrees
• 53.33% recruited older adult samples, 20% age-comparative samples, 16.67% adult lifespan samples
• Sample sizes ranged from approximately 100 to 300, with 4 studies exceeding 600 participants

Methodological characteristics:

• 86.7% were cross-sectional studies, 10% longitudinal, and 6.7% experimental
• Average study quality score was 17.94 out of 20 (SD = 1.21)

Regret measures:

• Wide variability in conceptualization and measurement of life regrets
• Most studies collected information on regret content through open-ended responses
• Common domains: education, occupation, family, romance, leisure, friendship, health, finance, personal
• Some studies measured regret intensity, frequency, emotions, and appraisals

Well-being measures:

• Diverse measures used across studies
• Common indicators: life satisfaction, depression, anxiety, affect, physical health
• Specific scales: Satisfaction with Life Scale, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule

Protective factors:

• Goal engagement/disengagement: Actively changing regretted circumstances or disengaging when change is not possible
• Interpretation and appraisal: Acceptance and positive reframing of regrets
• Social comparison: Downward comparisons associated with better outcomes
• Individual differences: Emotional stability and lower neuroticism related to less intense regrets

Age-related findings:

• Content of regrets varies across lifespan (e.g., younger adults report more leisure/romantic regrets, older adults more family/spirituality regrets)
• Mixed findings on age-related trends in regret frequency, intensity, and well-being consequences
• Older adults report less internal control over regrets
• Some evidence that older adults cope better with regrets

Gender-related findings:

• Women more frequently report regrets related to education, family, and relationships
• Men more frequently report regrets related to education and work
• Most studies show no gender differences in number, frequency, or intensity of regrets
• Some evidence of gender differences in perceived control and opportunities to reverse regrets

Insight

This systematic review provides a comprehensive synthesis of research on the relationship between life regrets and well-being, highlighting the complexity and nuance of this association.

The findings consistently demonstrate that experiencing life regrets is associated with poorer well-being across various psychological, emotional, and physical indicators.

However, the impact of life regrets on well-being is not uniform and depends on various factors such as age, gender, coping mechanisms, and individual differences in interpretation and appraisal.

The review extends previous research by identifying several protective factors that may mitigate the negative effects of life regrets on well-being.

These include adaptive goal engagement and disengagement strategies, positive reappraisal of regrets, downward social comparisons, and emotional stability.

This suggests that interventions targeting these factors could potentially help individuals cope more effectively with life regrets and maintain better well-being.

The findings also highlight important developmental considerations in the experience and impact of life regrets.

While some studies suggest that regret intensity decreases with age, others point to shifts in the content of regrets across the lifespan. This underscores the need for a lifespan perspective in understanding the dynamic relationship between life regrets and well-being.

Future research should focus on addressing the limitations identified in the current literature.

This includes using more diverse and representative samples, developing standardized measures of life regret, conducting more longitudinal and experimental studies to establish causality, and exploring potential mediators and moderators of the relationship between life regrets and well-being.

Additionally, investigating cultural differences in life regret experiences and their impact on well-being could provide valuable insights into the universality and specificity of these phenomena.

Implications

The findings of this systematic review have significant implications for understanding psychological well-being across the lifespan and informing potential interventions to promote healthy aging.

The consistent association between life regrets and poorer well-being underscores the importance of addressing regret experiences in clinical and counseling settings, particularly when working with older adults who may be engaging in life review processes.

The identification of protective factors provides a foundation for developing targeted interventions to help individuals cope more effectively with life regrets.

For example, cognitive-behavioral techniques could be used to promote adaptive goal disengagement and positive reappraisal of regrets.

Mindfulness-based approaches might help individuals accept past regrets and focus on present experiences.

Social support interventions could facilitate adaptive social comparisons and provide opportunities for sharing and normalizing regret experiences.

The mixed findings regarding age-related trends in life regrets highlight the need for a nuanced, lifespan approach to understanding and addressing regret experiences.

Clinicians and researchers should be aware that the content and impact of life regrets may vary across different life stages and cohorts. This suggests that interventions may need to be tailored to specific age groups or life transitions.

The gender-related findings, while mixed, indicate that there may be some differences in how men and women experience and cope with life regrets. This suggests that gender-sensitive approaches may be beneficial in addressing regret-related issues in clinical or counseling contexts.

Finally, the review underscores the importance of considering individual differences in personality traits, cognitive patterns, and coping styles when assessing the impact of life regrets on well-being.

This supports a personalized approach to interventions that takes into account an individual’s unique characteristics and life circumstances.

Strengths

The study had many methodological strengths including:

• Adherence to PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews
• Pre-registration of the review protocol on the Open Science Framework
• Use of multiple databases for a comprehensive literature search
• Rigorous screening process with two independent reviewers
• High inter-rater reliability for data extraction (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.93)
• Inclusion of grey literature (e.g., dissertations) to reduce publication bias
• Comprehensive data extraction covering various aspects of each study
• Assessment of study quality using adapted tools (AXIS and STROBE)
• Transparent reporting of methods and making data and codebooks available on OSF

Limitations

The review identified several limitations in the existing literature on life regrets and well-being:

• Sample limitations: Most studies relied on WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) samples, limiting generalizability to diverse populations. Many studies also had predominantly female samples.
• Measurement inconsistencies: There was significant variability in how life regrets were conceptualized and measured across studies, making direct comparisons challenging.
• Design limitations: The majority of studies (86.7%) were cross-sectional, limiting causal inferences about the relationship between life regrets and well-being.
• Limited longitudinal and experimental research: Only three longitudinal studies and two experimental studies were identified, providing limited evidence for directional effects.
• Lack of diverse well-being measures: While various well-being indicators were used, some important constructs (e.g., Ryff’s components of psychological well-being) were not examined in relation to life regrets.
• Potential cohort effects: Many studies were conducted over a decade ago, and findings related to gender differences may not reflect current societal trends.
• Limited exploration of cultural differences: Few studies examined how cultural factors might influence the experience of life regrets and their impact on well-being.

These limitations suggest caution in generalizing findings and highlight the need for more diverse, longitudinal, and experimental research in this area.

Future studies should aim to address these limitations to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between life regrets and well-being across diverse populations and contexts.

References

Primary reference

Rutledge, J. A., Williams, J. D., & Barlow, M. A. (2024). The relationship between life regrets and well-being: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1515373. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515373

Other references

Henrich, J. (2020). The WEIRDest people in the world: How the west became psychologically peculiar and particularly prosperous. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-83.

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2010). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. International Journal of Surgery, 8(5), 336-341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.02.007

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., … & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. bmj, 372. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71 

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069.

Wrosch, C., Bauer, I., & Scheier, M. F. (2005). Regret and quality of life across the adult life span: the influence of disengagement and available future goals. Psychology and aging, 20(4), 657.

Keep Learning

Socratic questions for a college class to discuss this paper:

1. How might cultural differences influence the experience and impact of life regrets on well-being? What factors should researchers consider when studying this topic across diverse populations?
2. Given the limitations of cross-sectional research, how could future studies better establish causal relationships between life regrets and well-being? What ethical considerations might arise in experimental studies of life regrets?
3. How might societal changes and shifting norms affect the content and intensity of life regrets across different generations? How can researchers account for cohort effects in their studies?
4. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of developing standardized measures of life regret? How might researchers balance the need for consistency with capturing the unique aspects of individual regret experiences?
5. How might the relationship between life regrets and well-being differ across various life transitions (e.g., retirement, parenthood, career changes)? How could this inform targeted interventions?
6. What role might technology and social media play in shaping contemporary experiences of life regret? How could researchers investigate this in future studies?
7. How might the conceptualization and impact of life regrets differ in collectivist versus individualist cultures? What methodological challenges might arise in cross-cultural comparisons?
8. Considering the protective factors identified in this review, how might clinicians integrate these findings into therapeutic approaches for addressing life regrets? What ethical considerations should be taken into account?
9. How might the experience and impact of life regrets differ for individuals with various mental health conditions or neurodevelopmental differences? How could researchers ethically study these populations?
10. Given the limitations in current research, how confident can we be in generalizing the findings of this review? What steps could researchers and policymakers take to ensure that interventions based on these findings are effective and culturally sensitive?