Facets Of Mindfulness Have Implications For Mental Health Across The Lifespan

Mindfulness is the practice of intentionally focusing one’s attention on the present moment, while acknowledging and accepting thoughts, feelings, and sensations without judgment.

This skill has been associated with numerous benefits throughout the lifespan, including reduced stress, anxiety, and depression; improved emotional regulation; enhanced cognitive function; and increased overall well-being.

In children and adolescents, mindfulness can support social-emotional development and academic performance. For adults, it can improve work productivity and relationship satisfaction.

In older adults, mindfulness practices may help maintain cognitive function and promote successful aging.

As such, mindfulness has emerged as a valuable tool for promoting mental health and well-being across all life stages.

Johnson, N. J., Smith, R. J., & Kil, H. (2024). Not all mindfulness is equal: certain facets of mindfulness have important implications for well-being and mental health across the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1347487. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1347487

Key Points

• Five mindfulness profiles were identified in a Canadian lifespan sample: high mindfulness, moderate mindfulness, low mindfulness, nonjudgmentally aware, and judgmentally observing.
• Individuals in the high mindfulness and nonjudgmentally aware profiles were generally older and reported better mental health and well-being outcomes.
• The judgmentally observing profile consisted of younger individuals and was associated with worse mental health outcomes.
• Certain combinations of mindfulness facets appear more adaptive than others in relation to well-being and mental health across the lifespan.
• The study highlights the importance of considering heterogeneity in mindfulness when examining its connections to well-being outcomes.
• Person-centered approaches to mindfulness research provide nuanced insights that may not be captured by variable-centered analyses.
• Understanding mindfulness profiles has implications for tailoring mindfulness-based interventions across different age groups.

Rationale

Previous research has shown that mindfulness, typically defined as present-moment awareness with a non-judgmental attitude, is associated with various well-being outcomes across the lifespan (Tomlinson et al., 2018).

However, inconsistencies in findings across different mindfulness facets and samples have led researchers to argue for person-centered approaches to explore heterogeneity in mindfulness (Lilja et al., 2013; Pearson et al., 2015; Bravo et al., 2016).

While several studies have examined mindfulness profiles in specific age groups or clinical populations, there is a lack of research investigating mindfulness profiles across a large lifespan sample.

This study aimed to address this gap by identifying mindfulness profiles in a Canadian sample aged 14-90 and examining how these profiles relate to age, well-being, and mental health outcomes.

By taking a person-centered approach with a diverse age range, the researchers sought to provide a more nuanced understanding of how different combinations of mindfulness facets may be differentially adaptive across the lifespan.

Method

The study employed a cross-sectional design using latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify mindfulness profiles based on the five facets of mindfulness.

Procedure

Participants completed an online questionnaire measuring the five facets of mindfulness, life satisfaction, existential well-being, and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress.

Sample

1,600 Canadian participants aged 14-90 (M = 45.74, SD = 21.09) were recruited through Qualtrics XM. The sample was balanced across age cohorts and binary gender.

Measures

• Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire Short Form (FFMQ-SF): Measures five facets of mindfulness – observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experiences, and non-reactivity to inner experiences.
• Satisfaction with Life Scale: Assesses global cognitive judgments of one’s life satisfaction.
• Existential Well-being subscale from the Spiritual Well-Being Scale: Measures one’s sense of purpose and satisfaction in life.
• Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-12 (DASS-12): Evaluates symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress over the past week.

Statistical measures

Latent profile analysis was conducted to identify mindfulness profiles. The 3-step method was used for profile comparisons on age, well-being, and mental health outcomes.

Results

1. Five mindfulness profiles were identified: high mindfulness (21.1%), moderate mindfulness (50.0%), low mindfulness (8.2%), nonjudgmentally aware (13.8%), and judgmentally observing (6.9%).
2. Age differences:
   • High mindfulness and nonjudgmentally aware profiles were older
   • Judgmentally observing profile was younger
   • Moderate and low mindfulness profiles fell between these groups
3. Well-being and mental health outcomes:
   • High mindfulness profile reported the best outcomes
   • Nonjudgmentally aware profile had similar outcomes to high mindfulness, except for higher depressive symptoms
   • Low mindfulness and judgmentally observing profiles reported worse mental health
   • Moderate mindfulness profile fell between these groups

Insight

This study provides a comprehensive examination of mindfulness profiles across the lifespan, revealing important nuances in how different combinations of mindfulness facets relate to age, well-being, and mental health.

The identification of five distinct profiles, including two heterogeneous profiles (nonjudgmentally aware and judgmentally observing), extends previous research by demonstrating the complexity of mindfulness across a wide age range.

The findings suggest that certain mindfulness profiles may be more adaptive than others. Specifically, the high mindfulness and nonjudgmentally aware profiles, which were associated with older age and better mental health outcomes, appear to be particularly beneficial.

This aligns with previous research indicating that mindfulness tends to increase with age (Hohaus & Spark, 2013; Shook et al., 2021) and supports theories such as the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen, 2006), which proposes that older adults may be more motivated to focus on present-moment experiences.

The judgmentally observing profile, characterized by high observing scores but low scores on other facets, was associated with younger age and poorer mental health outcomes.

This finding highlights the potential risks of emphasizing observation without cultivating other aspects of mindfulness, particularly among younger individuals who may be more prone to self-judgment and social comparison.

Future research could explore the developmental trajectories of these mindfulness profiles using longitudinal designs.

Additionally, investigating the efficacy of tailored mindfulness interventions based on individual profiles could enhance the effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapies across different age groups.

Strengths

This study had several methodological strengths, including:

• Large, age-diverse sample (N = 1,600, age range 14-90)
• Balanced representation across age cohorts and binary gender
• Use of latent profile analysis to identify nuanced mindfulness profiles
• Examination of multiple well-being and mental health outcomes
• Inclusion of both homogeneous and heterogeneous mindfulness profiles

Limitations

This study also had several methodological limitations, including:

1. Cross-sectional design limits causal inferences about age-related changes in mindfulness profiles.
2. Sample predominantly consisted of WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) participants, limiting generalizability to diverse cultural contexts.
3. Use of self-report measures may introduce bias and limit the depth of understanding of mindfulness experiences.
4. Lack of information on participants’ meditation experience, which could influence mindfulness profiles and outcomes.
5. Short-form versions of measures were used, potentially compromising some psychometric properties.

These limitations suggest caution in generalizing findings to non-Western populations and underscore the need for longitudinal and more diverse studies to confirm the developmental patterns observed.

Clinical Implications

The identification of distinct mindfulness profiles across the lifespan has significant implications for both research and practice in clinical psychology and related fields:

1. Tailored interventions: Mindfulness-based interventions could be customized based on an individual’s profile, focusing on developing specific facets that may be lacking. For example, younger individuals in the judgmentally observing profile might benefit from interventions that emphasize non-judgment and acting with awareness.
2. Developmental considerations: The age-related differences in profile distribution suggest that mindfulness interventions may need to be adapted for different life stages. Older adults might benefit from approaches that build on their existing strengths in non-judgment and awareness, while younger individuals may need more support in developing these skills.
3. Targeted mental health support: Given the associations between certain profiles and mental health outcomes, clinicians could use profile assessments to identify individuals at higher risk for anxiety, depression, or stress, and provide targeted support.
4. Lifespan perspective on mindfulness: The study underscores the importance of considering mindfulness as a multifaceted construct that may manifest differently across the lifespan, challenging the one-size-fits-all approach to mindfulness research and intervention.
5. Efficiency in intervention design: In resource-limited settings, focusing on developing non-judgment and acting with awareness (as seen in the nonjudgmentally aware profile) might be a more efficient approach to promoting well-being, given its similarity to the high mindfulness profile in many outcomes.
6. Education and prevention: Understanding the potential risks associated with certain profiles (e.g., judgmentally observing) could inform educational programs and early interventions to promote more adaptive mindfulness patterns, particularly among younger populations.

These implications highlight the potential for a more nuanced and personalized approach to mindfulness in both clinical practice and public health initiatives, which could ultimately lead to more effective promotion of mental health and well-being across diverse age groups.

References

Primary reference

Johnson, N. J., Smith, R. J., & Kil, H. (2024). Not all mindfulness is equal: certain facets of mindfulness have important implications for well-being and mental health across the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1347487. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1347487

Other references

Bravo, A. J., Boothe, L. G., & Pearson, M. R. (2016). Getting personal with mindfulness: A latent profile analysis of mindfulness and psychological outcomes. Mindfulness, 7, 420-432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0459-7

Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science, 312(5782), 1913-1915.

Gupta, G., & Rawat, V. P. (2024). Do Mindfulness and Psychological well-being improve in old age? Exploring Gender Differences. Mind and Society, 13(01), 16-22. https://doi.org/10.56011/mind-mri-131-20242

Lilja, J. L., Lundh, L. G., Josefsson, T., & Falkenström, F. (2013). Observing as an essential facet of mindfulness: A comparison of FFMQ patterns in meditating and non-meditating individuals. Mindfulness, 4, 203-212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0111-8

Pearson, M. R., Lawless, A. K., Brown, D. B., & Bravo, A. J. (2015). Mindfulness and emotional outcomes: Identifying subgroups of college students using latent profile analysis. Personality and individual differences, 76, 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.009

Shook, N. J., Delaney, R. K., Strough, J., Wilson, J. M., Sevi, B., & Altman, N. (2021). Playing it safe: Dispositional mindfulness partially accounts for age differences in health and safety risk-taking propensity. Current Psychology, 40, 2142-2152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-0137-3

Tomlinson, E. R., Yousaf, O., Vittersø, A. D., & Jones, L. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness and psychological health: A systematic review. Mindfulness, 9, 23-43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0762-6

Keep Learning

Socratic questions for a college class to discuss this paper:

1. How might cultural differences influence the manifestation of mindfulness profiles across the lifespan? What implications does this have for cross-cultural mindfulness research?
2. Given the age-related differences in mindfulness profiles, how might mindfulness interventions need to be adapted for different developmental stages (e.g., adolescence, young adulthood, older adulthood)?
3. What are the potential mechanisms underlying the association between certain mindfulness profiles and better mental health outcomes? How might these mechanisms differ across age groups?
4. How might the judgmentally observing profile relate to contemporary issues facing younger generations, such as social media use and increased rates of anxiety and depression?
5. What ethical considerations should be taken into account when tailoring mindfulness interventions based on individual profiles?
6. How might socioeconomic factors influence the development and maintenance of different mindfulness profiles across the lifespan?
7. What role might neuroplasticity play in the observed age-related differences in mindfulness profiles? How could this inform our understanding of mindfulness training across different age groups?
8. How might the identified mindfulness profiles relate to other psychological constructs, such as emotion regulation, resilience, or personality traits?
9. What are the potential long-term implications of belonging to a particular mindfulness profile throughout one’s life? How might this impact various life outcomes beyond mental health and well-being?
10. How could the findings of this study inform public health initiatives aimed at promoting mental health and well-being across different age groups?