Future anxiety is characterized by worry and apprehension about the future, often involving a sense of uncertainty and potential negativity.
This anxiety can influence decisions about major life events, including parenthood.
Individuals with high future anxiety may postpone having children due to concerns about their ability to provide a stable and secure environment for their offspring, worries about the child’s future well-being, or fears about the challenges and responsibilities of parenthood.
In some cases, future anxiety may lead to the decision to forgo having children entirely.
Szcześniak, M., Łoś, J., & Grzeczka, M. (2025). Future anxiety and the motives for postponing parenthood: Generational time perspective and life satisfaction as mediators. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1441927. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1441927
Key Points
- Future anxiety is directly associated with motives for delaying parenthood.
- Generational affectivity and life satisfaction partially mediate the relationship between future anxiety and delaying parenthood.
- Generational cognitive perspective does not mediate this relationship.
- The effect sizes of these mediations are generally small.
- The findings highlight the role of subjective future time perspective and well-being in reproductive decisions.
Rationale
The decision to postpone parenthood is a complex phenomenon influenced by various factors.
While research has traditionally focused on sociodemographic variables like financial stability and career aspirations, there is growing recognition of the role of psychological factors in reproductive decisions.
Future anxiety, a negative future time perspective characterized by worry and anticipation of negative outcomes, can significantly impact decision-making.
Studies have shown a link between future anxiety and avoidant decision-making styles, potentially leading to the postponement of parenthood.
This study aims to further explore the relationship between future anxiety and motives for delaying parenthood, with a specific focus on the mediating roles of generational time perspective and life satisfaction.
Understanding these mechanisms can provide valuable insights into the psychological processes underlying reproductive decisions and inform potential interventions.
Method
This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional design using an online survey to collect data from participants.
Procedure
- Participants were recruited online and provided informed consent.
- They completed a series of questionnaires assessing future anxiety, motives for postponing parenthood, generational time perspective, and life satisfaction.
- Demographic information, such as age, gender, and place of residence, was also collected.
Sample
- 203 Polish adults aged 18-40 (M = 22.75 years, SD = 4.18)
- 74.9% women, 25.1% men
- Participants were from various locations in Poland, including cities and villages of different sizes.
- All participants were childless and of reproductive age.
Measures
- Dark Future Scale (DFS): Measures future anxiety, defined as fear of anticipated adverse changes in the future.
- Multidimensional Scale of Motives for Postponing Parenthood (MSMPP-18): Assesses six motives for postponing the decision to have a first child, including feelings of uncertainty and incompetence, self-focus, perception of parenthood as a burden, fear of change, financial security concerns, and worries about a child’s future.
- Generational Time Perspective Questionnaire (GTPQ): Examines generational time perspective in two aspects: affective (negative emotions towards future threats) and cognitive (interest in the lives of future generations).
- Riverside Life Satisfaction Scale (RSLS): Assesses an individual’s overall satisfaction with their life.
Statistical measures
- Spearman’s Rho correlations were used to assess the associations between the study variables.
- Multivariable linear regression analysis was conducted to control for potential confounders and examine the relationships between future anxiety, motives for postponing parenthood, generational time perspective, and life satisfaction.
- The PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to test the mediating effects of generational time perspective and life satisfaction.
Results
H1: Future anxiety is positively related to motives for postponing the start of childbearing and overall delayed parenthood.
- Supported. Future anxiety was positively correlated with five out of the six motives for postponing parenthood (uncertainty, burden, change, financial concerns, worry) and the total score for postponed parenthood.
H2: Future anxiety is positively related to generational time perspective in its two dimensions (affective and cognitive).
- Partially supported. Future anxiety was positively correlated with generational affectivity. A weak positive correlation was found with the generational cognitive perspective.
H3: Future anxiety is negatively associated with life satisfaction.
- Supported. A negative correlation was found between future anxiety and life satisfaction.
H4: Generational time perspective and life satisfaction act as mediators in the relationship between future anxiety and dimensions of postponed parenthood/its overall score.
- Partially supported. Generational affectivity and life satisfaction mediated the relationship between future anxiety and the motives for postponing parenthood in five of the seven models.
- Life satisfaction was the sole mediator in the relationship between future anxiety and self-focus.
- Generational affectivity was the sole mediator in the relationship between future anxiety and the total score of postponed parenthood. The generational cognitive perspective was not a mediator in any model.
Insight
This study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing the decision to postpone parenthood, highlighting the significant role of future anxiety, generational affectivity, and life satisfaction.
The findings suggest that individuals with higher levels of future anxiety tend to have a greater concern for the well-being of future generations and experience lower levels of personal life satisfaction, both of which contribute to their decision to delay childbearing.
This research extends previous work by identifying specific mediating mechanisms linking future anxiety to postponed parenthood.
The study also demonstrates the importance of considering psychological factors, particularly future time perspective and well-being, in understanding reproductive decisions.
Future research could explore the impact of interventions aimed at reducing future anxiety and enhancing life satisfaction on family planning decisions.
Additionally, investigating the influence of cultural and societal factors on the relationship between future anxiety and postponed parenthood could provide a more nuanced understanding of this phenomenon.
Implications
The findings of this study have several implications for practitioners and policymakers. Mental health professionals working with young adults and couples considering parenthood should assess and address future anxiety and life satisfaction as potential barriers to family planning.
Interventions aimed at reducing anxiety and promoting well-being may be beneficial in encouraging earlier childbearing decisions.
Policymakers can utilize these findings to develop programs and policies that support young adults in achieving their reproductive goals, such as providing access to mental health services, financial assistance, and affordable childcare.
Implementing these findings could lead to improved mental health outcomes for individuals and couples, as well as positive societal impacts related to population growth and family well-being.
However, it is crucial to consider the potential challenges of implementing such interventions, including ensuring accessibility, affordability, and cultural sensitivity.
Strengths
This study had several methodological strengths, including:
- Comprehensive assessment of various motives for postponing parenthood.
- Examination of both affective and cognitive dimensions of generational time perspective.
- Use of validated measures with good internal consistency.
- Control for potential confounding variables.
- Mediation analysis to explore underlying mechanisms.
Limitations
This study also had several methodological limitations, including:
- Cross-sectional design limits causal inferences.
- The sample was predominantly female and Polish, limiting generalizability.
- Self-reported data may be subject to bias.
- The study did not explore the impact of specific future anxieties (e.g., climate change, economic instability) on reproductive decisions.
References
Primary reference
Szcześniak, M., Łoś, J., & Grzeczka, M. (2025). Future anxiety and the motives for postponing parenthood: Generational time perspective and life satisfaction as mediators. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1441927. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1441927
Other references
Bellieni, C. V. (2012). The aging ovary: myth and reality. New York: Springer.
Hickman, C., Marks, E., Pihkala, P., Clayton, S., Lewandowski, R. E., Mayall, E. E., … & Van Susteren, L. (2021). Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(12), e863-e873.
Zaleski, Z. (1996). Future anxiety: Concept, measurement, and preliminary research. Personality and individual differences, 21(2), 165-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00070-0
Zaleski, Z., Sobol-Kwapinska, M., Przepiorka, A., & Meisner, M. (2019). Development and validation of the Dark Future scale. Time & Society, 28(1), 107-123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X16678257
Bodin, M., Holmström, C., Plantin, L., Schmidt, L., Ziebe, S., & Elmerstig, E. (2021). Preconditions to parenthood: changes over time and generations. Reproductive Biomedicine & Society Online, 13, 14-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbms.2021.03.003
Key learning
- How might the findings of this study differ if conducted in a different cultural context with varying societal norms regarding parenthood?
- What are the ethical considerations surrounding interventions aimed at reducing future anxiety and promoting earlier childbearing?
- How can policymakers balance individual reproductive autonomy with broader societal goals related to population growth and family well-being?
- Could there be alternative explanations for the relationship between future anxiety and delayed parenthood, beyond those explored in this study?
- How might the COVID-19 pandemic and other global events impact future anxiety and reproductive decisions?
- What are the potential long-term consequences of delaying parenthood for individuals, families, and society?
- How can mental health practitioners best support individuals and couples struggling with future anxiety and indecision regarding parenthood?
- Could there be unintended negative consequences of interventions aimed at encouraging earlier childbearing?
- How can society address the root causes of future anxiety, such as climate change and economic instability, to promote a more secure and hopeful future for all generations?
