Gender nonconforming describes someone whose appearance, behavior, interests, or self-concept differ from gender norms. These can be the norms attached to their sex assigned at birth, or masculine and feminine norms in general (American Psychological Association, 2015).
Very few people fully conform to all gender norms for their assigned gender. This may not mean that everyone is gender non-conforming. Instead, it describes someone who intentionally subverts these gender norms.
Also Known As:
While some people who don’t follow gender stereotypes may use the term gender nonconforming, others may prefer to identify as the following:
-
Agender
-
Androgynous
-
Bigender
-
Gender expansive
-
Differently gendered
-
Gender creative
-
Gender fluid
-
Gender diverse
-
Gender-neutral
-
Gender variant
-
Genderqueer
-
Nonbinary
Identifying with one of these terms does not automatically make someone gender nonconforming. Someone can be androgynous or nonbinary, for example, without their presentation ever departing from conventional gender norms. Nonconformity is about expression, not identity labels.
How is gender nonconformity expressed?
There are countless ways to be gender nonconforming. Common examples include the following:
- Self-presentation: hairstyle, makeup, and clothing. Someone assigned female at birth may wear menswear or androgynous clothing; someone assigned male at birth may grow their hair long or wear makeup.
- Pronouns: pronouns replace a noun, and she/her and he/him are gendered. Someone may adopt the opposite pronouns, gender-neutral ones such as they/them, or a mix such as she/they or he/they.
- Attitudes and Roles: nonconformity can extend to attitudes, gestures, and gender roles. Many people reject gender roles and define their own identity.
A gender-nonconforming individual may choose to present in a way that is neither stereotypically masculine nor feminine presenting.
Gender Identity vs Gender Expression
Gender identity is the internal knowledge and understanding of one’s own gender, meaning it is not visible to others.
Gender expression is the external presentation of gender, so generally, gender nonconforming is about the behaviors related to gender expression.
Gender nonconforming is more about how gender is expressed, which differs from gender fluid, for instance, which is more about gender identity.
Gender nonconforming is not the same as being transgender. A transgender person has a gender identity or gender expression that differs from the gender they were assigned at birth.
Transgender individuals can be gender-conforming if they are given opportunities to affirm their gender identity. Gender nonconforming is also not the same as non-binary individuals, whose gender identity is neither male nor female.
Anybody can be gender nonconforming. That includes people who are transgender, non-binary, or gender fluid. It also includes cisgender people, whose gender identity aligns with their gender assigned at birth.
Gender as a spectrum
Cisgender refers to someone whose sex assigned at birth matches their gender identity.
While many individuals identify as cisgender, many are not. The idea of gender is a social construct, with gender norms usually enforced by the culture one lives in.
Cultures and communities hold different ideas about gender. So what counts as a gender norm for one person can differ for someone else.
Gender is believed to sit on a spectrum with countless gender identities. That makes it fluid. It is not necessarily tied to the gender assigned at birth.
Some people may start showing gender-nonconforming behaviors and attitudes at a very young age, whereas others may become gender nonconforming in adolescence or adulthood.
Gender nonconformity is not a new concept. There is evidence of it throughout history.
The gender assigned at birth is not always stable. People can explore their gender to find what they are most comfortable with. In this way, people can live as their most authentic selves.
Gender nonconformity in childhood
Very young children often have not developed their own ideas about who they are and what gender is. Gender nonconformity may emerge once they can decide for themselves.
Children may show gender nonconformity in several ways:
- Toys: wanting to play with toys typical of the opposite gender, such as a girl wanting toy cars or football, or a boy wanting dolls.
- Clothing: wanting to wear clothing typical of the opposite gender, or dressing more androgynously.
- Playmates and Play: preferring playmates of the opposite assigned gender, or play atypical for their gender, such as rough-and-tumble play for girls or roleplaying games for boys.
Not every gender nonconforming child dresses and plays outside typical gender norms.
This is where socialization plays a big role.
Many children are told by parents, teachers, or other children to play and dress only in ways linked to their assigned gender at birth.
Thus, many do not show gender nonconformity until later in life. Then they can make more of their own decisions.
‘I remember being in my first-grade class and we were asked to sign up for like lunch reading groups… the teacher said, you know, all the girls are going to be reading this book. All the boys are going to be reading this book… I remember putting up a fit cause I was like, I don’t want to read the princess book or whatever, whatever it was… And I was like, but I want to read the boy’s book. Like that seems cool. Um, and I remember talking to my teacher about it… I didn’t want to be a part of the girls group screw that. Um, and the teacher said no.’
Quote from: Non-binary Gender Identity Development: A Qualitative Study (Waagen, 2022)
Some parents may express shock at their teenager assigned female at birth displaying gender nonconforming behavior. A parent may say, ‘They were always playing with girl’s toys and loved to dress up in pretty dresses as a young child.’
Perhaps ‘girl’s toys’ were the only toys available to the child. They may also have been actively encouraged to wear dresses. They may not have had the option to do anything differently.
Children who are gender nonconforming will not necessarily grow up to realize they are transgender.
However, children who are insistent that their gender identity is different to that associated with their assigned gender and persistent in this belief are highly likely to be transgender.
Challenges for gender nonconforming individuals
While gender-nonconforming individuals may be living their most authentic life by choosing to non-conform to certain gender roles, there are some issues they may face due to not conforming.
Gender nonconforming people can face criticism or bullying. The people responsible may hold strongly established ideas about gender roles, or feel uncomfortable with someone not conforming to them.
Some people may find it hard to place gender-nonconforming individuals into the simple gendered boxes of either man or woman.
‘I have great colleagues and an amazing cohort and amazing friends, but our professors are like terrible… And so it’s been really hard navigating… am I integrating using he/they pronouns because I’ll get, mis-gendered less with a binary pronoun?’
Quote from: Non-binary Gender Identity Development: A Qualitative Study (Waagen, 2022)
Together with the first-grade account above, these quotes show people who are not passive targets. Both participants actively weigh which battles with an authority figure are worth fighting.
Many people who believe in strict gender roles may become abusive toward those who do not conform. That can mean offensive language or, in extreme cases, violence.
Research on gender-nonconforming youth found that they may be more likely to experience abuse with a potential impact on their mental health (Craig et al., 2020).
Anyone seen as not conforming to the norms for their assigned gender at birth can be a victim of abuse. That includes transgender people. Some have been assaulted or even killed simply for being transgender.
Gay men and lesbians have also been targeted for violence. The reason is that they are not attracted to the gender that norms say they should be.
Black and ethnic minority people may face additional challenges for also being gender nonconforming. Marginalized groups, such as people of color, can face multiple layers of discrimination and hate.
Recent research examined this overlap. Dalton et al. (2026) surveyed 149 transgender and gender nonconforming people of color in the United States, most of them Black. Racial and gender-based stressors predicted both anxiety and depression. Part of that effect ran through internalized stress.
Abuse can also harm mental health. Research links gender nonconformity to a range of mental-health and relational difficulties:
- School Victimization: youth bullied for being perceived as gender nonconforming, even inaccurately, showed more school victimization, poorer life satisfaction, and greater likelihood of depression (Toomey et al., 2013).
- Social Anxiety: gender nonconformity predicted higher self-reported social interaction anxiety, which may reflect apprehension about others’ reactions (Jacobson, Cohen, & Diamond, 2016).
- Family Relationships: childhood gender nonconformity was associated with poorer relationships with parents, and with greater risk of abuse and possibly PTSD where family members were less accepting (Roberts et al., 2012).
- Emotional Difficulties: behavioral and emotional challenges were elevated, especially with poor peer relations or parents who endorsed gender stereotypes and were less willing to act as a secure base (MacMullin et al., 2021).
- Suicide Risk: in adolescence, gender nonconformity was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of suicidal ideation, suicide plans, and suicide attempts (Spivey & Prinstein, 2019).
Contemporary Research
Recent research asks three questions. How strong is the link between gender nonconformity and mental health? What explains it? Does culture change it?
The table summarizes the main studies.
| Study | Design | Main finding |
|---|---|---|
| Xu et al. (2024) | Meta-analysis of five mental-health outcomes | Small-to-moderate elevations; stronger in adolescence |
| Mahfouda et al. (2023) | Longitudinal cohort, seven waves, 1995 to 2018 | Poorer mental health persisted to age 27 |
| Klinger et al. (2024) | Meta-analysis of non-binary youth | Elevated depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts |
| Thoma et al. (2021) | Meta-analysis of minority-stress studies | Nonconformity linked to more minority stress |
| Thoma et al. (2025) | Study of 455 sexual minority adolescents | Distress ran through victimization and rejection |
| Zentner & von Aufsess (2022) | 18 samples from 15 countries | Weaker link to low self-esteem in more gender-equal countries |
| Wierenga et al. (2026) | European survey of 194 regions | Larger depression gap in less gender-equal regions |
How Strong Is the Link?
Xu et al. (2024) ran a meta-analysis of five outcomes. It pooled 25 studies of generalized anxiety, 48 of depressive symptoms, 32 of self-esteem, 7 of self-harm, and 9 of suicide attempts.
Greater gender nonconformity was linked to small-to-moderate elevations in anxiety, depression, self-harm, and suicide attempts, and to lower self-esteem.
Links to anxiety, depression, and self-esteem were stronger in men than in women, and stronger in adolescence than in childhood. Sexual orientation did not change any pattern.
The authors attributed the pattern partly to victimization rather than to nonconformity being inherently pathological. They concluded that greater social tolerance would plausibly benefit wellbeing. The pooled studies are correlational, so cause and effect remain unclear.
The Raine Study in Perth, Western Australia adds a life-course view. It followed participants across seven waves between 1995 and 2018.
Childhood and adolescent gender nonconformity predicted more emotional and behavioral difficulties and self-harm in youth (Mahfouda et al., 2023). It also predicted more depression, anxiety, and distress in adulthood, up to age 27.
That study measured nonconformity with one coarse item, whether a child wished to be the other sex. The true relationship may therefore be masked.
A 2024 meta-analysis of non-binary youth found elevated rates of depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. In several comparisons these matched or exceeded rates in binary transgender peers (Klinger et al., 2024).
Non-binary youth also reported less social support and a higher risk of abuse than cisgender peers.
What Explains the Link?
Is nonconformity itself distressing, or does stigma carry the harm? Minority stress is the cumulative stigma, expected rejection, and victimization that a marginalized identity attracts.
A meta-analysis of the lesbian, gay, and bisexual literature found that gender nonconformity was linked to more minority stress (Thoma et al., 2021). That stress was in turn linked to poorer mental health.
A 2025 study of 455 sexual minority adolescents aged 12 to 17 tested the pathway directly. Gender nonconformity predicted greater psychological distress through peer victimization, family rejection, and negative expectations about others’ reactions.
It also worked through negative experiences when disclosing their identity (Thoma et al., 2025). It showed no large direct effect of its own.
Together, these studies suggest nonconformity acts less as a direct cause of distress and more as a visible marker that exposes people to stigma.
That points interventions toward reducing victimization and rejection, not toward discouraging nonconformity.
Does Culture Change the Risk?
Culture appears to matter. Zentner and von Aufsess (2022) analyzed 18 samples from 15 countries. Gender nonconformity was less strongly linked to lower self-esteem in more gender-equal countries.
A 2026 study went further. It drew on the 2023 European Social Survey, covering 194 regions in 24 countries (Wierenga et al., 2026). Less gender-conforming people reported more depressive symptoms, even within the same sex or gender category. The gap was significantly larger in less gender-equal regions.
Two large datasets using different outcomes point the same way. The burden of nonconformity is not fixed: restrictive cultures appear to amplify it.
Both findings are correlational, and most of the underlying evidence comes from Western samples. None of these studies examined societies with formally recognized third-gender roles, such as the Hijra or Two-Spirit communities described below.
How to support someone who is gender nonconforming
All these issues that gender nonconforming people can face reveal how harmful gender norms and expectations can be.
Professional guidance reflects this view. The American Psychological Association (2015) states that gender nonconformity is not a disorder and should not be treated as one. Counsellors support a client’s own exploration, using the client’s stated language and pronouns.
They also distinguish nonconformity from gender dysphoria. Dysphoria is the separate distress that can arise from a mismatch between assigned sex and experienced gender identity.
As a parent of a gender nonconforming child, you can support your child to explore their gender expression openly. Allow choice. Let them decide how they present themselves and what toys they play with. That is a good way to start encouraging a child to find their own identity.
Family response matters. Ryan et al. (2010) found that specific parental behaviors were linked to better outcomes in LGBT young adults. These behaviors included advocating for a child who is mistreated, supporting their gender expression, and using their chosen name.
Those young adults reported higher self-esteem, social support, and mental health. Rates of depression, substance use, and suicidal behavior were lower.
Regardless of whether you are a parent, educator, friend, or partner of a gender-nonconforming individual, you can become an advocate for them.
There are positive steps you can take to actively support others who are gender nonconforming or to seek support if you are gender nonconforming.
- Use correct pronouns, titles, names, and other identifiers. Don’t assume pronouns; ask politely which terms a person uses, then use them. If you slip, apologize briefly and move on.
- Speak up to challenge stereotypes, biases, and judgments. If you hear someone being rude, dismissive, or judgmental about gender expression, challenge those assumptions and push back against restrictive norms.
- Show support through validation and understanding. Listen more than you speak. Encourage people to share their experiences, and validate their feelings with empathy and compassion.
- Educate yourself and others. Read up on gender diversity and identities to increase awareness. If someone seems genuinely curious yet uninformed, politely explain or share resources.
- Advocate for institutional changes. Write to leaders and politicians urging policy reform on rights and protections in housing, employment, and healthcare. Support organizations pursuing legal or policy change.
- Foster safe spaces. Make your personal spaces, friend circles, and workplaces visibly welcoming for people of all gender identities and expressions. Call out intolerance when you see it.
- Provide emotional support. Check in on a friend’s mental health, offer an empathetic ear, and connect them with counseling or crisis support if needed. Remind them they are not alone.
History of gender nonconformity
Many people assume gender nonconformity is a recent phenomenon. Historical evidence points the other way. Below are some well-known examples of gender nonconforming people.
Elagabalus – 222 AD
Elagabalus was a Roman emperor who insisted on being referred to as Lady or Empress. They wore feminine makeup and were known to disguise themselves as a female sex worker.
Eleanor Rykener – 1400s
Eleanor Rykener was a key figure of gender and sexuality in medieval England. Assigned male at birth, they were arrested after living as a woman and working as a sex worker.
Rykener was believed to have had sexual relationships with men and women and, at different times, fulfilled more masculine and feminine roles.
Thomas/Thomasine Hall – 1600s
Hall was raised as a girl before presenting as a man in order to enter the military. This was not a one-off disguise.
After serving in the military, Hall regularly alternated between masculine and feminine clothing and went by both names of Thomas and Thomasine. They claimed to feel no preference towards either gender before there was the language to describe this kind of non-conforming.
Jack Garland – late 1800s to mid-1900s
Garland was assigned female at birth but presented as male. They dressed in masculine clothing. They also avoided speaking aloud so that no one could infer their gender from their voice.
After serving in the U.S. military, Garland adopted the name Jack Garland and worked as a male nurse. Garland was also heavily tattooed, which was considered masculine at the time.
Cultural differences in gender norms
Gender norms are not the same for every culture and society around the world; in fact, these can differ vastly. What may be considered gender nonconforming in one culture might not be in another.
Throughout history and still today, some communities reject the two-gender binary or recognize additional genders. Some of them are described below.
| Tradition | Region | Key features |
|---|---|---|
| Hijra | India, Pakistan, Bangladesh | Recognized as a third gender for thousands of years; adopt feminine dress and roles |
| Two-spirited people | Native American tribes (at least 155) | Believed to hold the spirit of both a man and a woman |
| Burrnesha | Albania | Take a vow of chastity and wear male clothing to be viewed as men |
| Sekrata | Madagascar | Boys thought to have a feminine appearance, raised as girls |
| Mahu | Hawaii (Kanaka Maoli) | A gender role between male and female, considered sacred |
Hijra
Hijra has been recognized in South Asian cultures, including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, as a third gender for thousands of years. Hijras are people assigned male at birth who adopt feminine norms, such as wearing feminine clothing and taking on other feminine gender roles.
Many do not consider themselves men or women but a distinct third gender.
Two-spirited people
The ‘two-spirited people’ are recognized by at least 155 Native American tribes. These individuals are believed to literally have the spirit of both a man and a woman.
They encompass a wide range of gender expressions ranging from more feminine, more masculine, or androgynous.
Burrnesha
Burrnesha is a community in Albania first documented in the 1800s but traceable to the 1400s. The Burrnesha are people assigned female at birth who take a vow of chastity. They wear male clothing in order to be viewed as men in a highly patriarchal society.
Sekrata
Based in Madagascar, Sekrata are boys who are thought to have a feminine appearance and so were raised as girls. They wear their hair long and in decorative knots, have silver coins inserted into their pierced ears and wear many bracelets.
Their society thought their efforts to be female natural and it is believed that they have supernatural protection, which punished anyone who attempted to do them harm.
Mahu
In Hawaii, a multiple-gender tradition existed among the Kanaka Maoli indigenous society. The Mahu could be assigned male or female at birth, inhabiting a gender role somewhere in between.
Their social role is considered sacred as educators and advocates of ancient traditions and rituals.
Theories of Gender Nonconformity
The label gender nonconforming describes a pattern but does not explain it. Several theories offer rival explanations for why gender norms exist and why some people depart from them.
| Theory | Key source | Explains nonconformity as |
|---|---|---|
| Social constructionism | West and Zimmerman (1987) | A departure from a local, socially enforced standard of “doing” gender |
| Biological accounts | Kung et al. (2024) | Prenatal androgen exposure may shape some play preferences |
| Gender-schema theory | Bem (1981) | The behavior of a child with a weaker or differently organized gender schema |
| Queer theory | Butler (1990); Hyde et al. (2019) | A category that may reinforce the binary it critiques |
Social Constructionism
Social constructionism treats gender as something people do. West and Zimmerman (1987) argued that people produce gender moment to moment through everyday interaction. That interaction holds them accountable to a shared standard of masculinity or femininity.
On this view, nonconformity is relative to place. It means someone’s everyday “doing” of gender departs from the local standard.
That explains why norms vary so sharply across cultures and eras. A Hijra in South Asia and a Two-Spirit person in a Native American community are judged against different standards. Each answers to a different local audience.
This framework fits the idea that gender norms are shaped largely by culture. It treats nonconformity as a departure from a local, socially enforced standard rather than from a universal one.
Biological Accounts
A competing tradition looks to prenatal biology.
The strongest evidence comes from congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a condition that exposes female fetuses to high levels of androgens (male-typical hormones) before birth.
Kung et al. (2024) pooled 20 independent samples in a meta-analysis. Girls with CAH showed consistently large shifts toward male-typical toy and playmate preferences and rough-and-tumble play, compared with unaffected girls.
The pattern did not appear in boys with CAH.
Such findings are hard to explain through socialization alone, since a family cannot respond to CAH status before birth. CAH is a special case, though. A condition with unusually large hormonal effects is not the same as ordinary variation in gender expression.
Most researchers now favor an interactionist account over a simple nature-versus-nurture opposition (Hyde et al., 2019). Biology may shape tendencies, while culture supplies what counts as a departure from a norm.
Gender-Schema Theory
Bem’s (1981) gender-schema theory offers a cognitive explanation. Children build an organized network of gender-linked associations, called a gender schema, early in development.
They then use it to process new information, including information about themselves.
A child whose self-concept is strongly organized around this schema is motivated to keep their behavior consistent with it. That creates internal pressure toward conformity. It does not depend on any single outside enforcer.
Through this lens, nonconformity is not necessarily a willed departure from a norm. Instead, it may be the observable behavior of a child whose schema is comparatively weak, loosely organized, or built around different associations than their peers’.
That is a different causal story from one centered on intentional self-expression, although the two are not strictly incompatible.
Queer Theory
Queer theory challenges the very idea of conforming and nonconforming. Butler (1990) argued that gender is not an inner essence later expressed outwardly. It is performative, constituted through repeated, stylized acts that only create the appearance of a stable gender in retrospect.
From this standpoint, defining and measuring nonconformity against an implied norm risks stabilizing the very binary the concept might help dismantle. Naming a departure reinforces the standard.
Hyde et al. (2019) make a related argument from within mainstream psychology. They call for the field to move away from binary, either/or models of sex and gender, which misrepresent the variation research increasingly documents.
This critique does not deny the real risks documented above. It asks whether the vocabulary used to study them quietly reproduces the norm-based thinking that creates them.
Key Takeaways
- Definition: Gender nonconforming describes someone whose appearance, behavior, interests, or self-concept differ from gender norms.
- Identity vs Expression: Nonconformity is about expression, not identity. Anyone can be gender nonconforming, and a transgender person can be entirely gender-conforming.
- Childhood: Nonconformity may show in toys, clothing, and playmates. Socialization affects whether it becomes visible.
- Risks: Research links gender nonconformity to bullying and poorer mental health, largely through stigma, victimization, and rejection rather than nonconformity itself.
- Culture: The mental-health gap is larger in more traditional, less gender-equal regions, so it is not a fixed feature of nonconformity.
- Support: Use correct pronouns, challenge stereotypes, listen, and offer emotional support. Family acceptance is linked to better outcomes.
- History: Gender nonconforming people and third-gender traditions appear across history and cultures.
References
American Psychological Association. (2015). Guidelines for psychological practice with transgender and gender nonconforming people. American Psychologist, 70(9), 832–864. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039906
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge.
Craig, S. L., Austin, A., Levenson, J., Leung, V. W., Eaton, A. D., & D’Souza, S. A. (2020). Frequencies and patterns of adverse childhood events in LGBTQ+ youth. Child abuse & neglect, 107, 104623.
Dalton, M. R., Secrest, S., Hoffmann, A. A., Nash, M., Patel, D., Salas, J., Galupo, M. P., & Heiden-Rootes, K. (2026). Centering transgender and gender nonconforming people of color in the study of minority stress, transition-related factors, and mental health. Frontiers in Public Health, 14, Article 1716010. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2026.1716010
Hyde, J. S., Bigler, R. S., Joel, D., Tate, C. C., & van Anders, S. M. (2019). The future of sex and gender in psychology: Five challenges to the gender binary. American Psychologist, 74(2), 171–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000307
Jacobson, R., Cohen, H., & Diamond, G. M. (2016). Gender atypicality and anxiety response to social interaction stress in homosexual and heterosexual men. Archives of sexual behavior, 45(3), 713-723.
Klinger, D., Oehlke, S.-M., Riedl, S., Eschbaum, K., Zesch, H. E., Karwautz, A., Plener, P. L., & Kothgassner, O. D. (2024). Mental health of non-binary youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 18, Article 126. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00822-z
Kung, K. T. F., Louie, K., Spencer, D., & Hines, M. (2024). Prenatal androgen exposure and sex-typical play behaviour: A meta-analysis of classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 159, Article 105616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105616
MacMullin, L. N., Bokeloh, L. M., Nabbijohn, A. N., Santarossa, A., van der Miesen, A. I., Peragine, D. E., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2021). Examining the Relation Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Well-Being in Children: The Roles of Peers and Parents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(3), 823-841.
Mahfouda, S., Maybery, M., Moore, J., Perry, Y., Strauss, P., Zepf, F., & Lin, A. (2023). Gender non-conformity in childhood and adolescence and mental health through to adulthood: A longitudinal cohort study, 1995–2018. Psychological Medicine, 53(16), 7756–7765. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291723001721
PBS. (2015, August 11). A Map of Gender-Diverse Cultures. https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/content/two-spirits_map-html/
Roberts, A. L., Rosario, M., Corliss, H. L., Koenen, K. C., & Austin, S. B. (2012). Childhood gender nonconformity: A risk indicator for childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress in youth. Pediatrics, 129(3), 410-417.
Ryan, C., Russell, S. T., Huebner, D., Diaz, R., & Sanchez, J. (2010). Family acceptance in adolescence and the health of LGBT young adults. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 23(4), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2010.00246.x
Spivey, L. A., & Prinstein, M. J. (2019). A preliminary examination of the association between adolescent gender nonconformity and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 47(4), 707-716.
Thoma, B. C., Biernesser, C. L., & Win, E. (2025). Gender nonconformity, minority stress, and psychological distress among sexual minority adolescents. LGBT Health, 12(4), 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2024.0059
Thoma, B. C., Eckstrand, K. L., Montano, G. T., Rezeppa, T. L., & Marshal, M. P. (2021). Gender nonconformity and minority stress among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1165–1183. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620968766
Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2013). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(S), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/2329-0382.1.s.71
Waagen, T. (2022). Non-binary Gender Identity Development: A Qualitative Study (Doctoral dissertation, The University of North Dakota).
Warnes, O. (2019, December 3). Not just a trend: A brief history of gender non-conforming. Her Campus. https://www.hercampus.com/school/exeter/not-just-trend-brief-history-gender-non-conforming/
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243287001002002
Wierenga, H., Derntl, B., & Schober, P. (2026). Self-perceived gender conformity relates to depressive symptoms across Europe. Nature Mental Health, 4(6), 1035–1044. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-026-00670-0
Xu, Y., Feng, J., & Rahman, Q. (2024). Gender nonconformity and common mental health problems: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 114, Article 102500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102500
Zentner, M., & von Aufsess, C. (2022). Is being gender nonconforming distressing? It depends where you live: Gender equality across 15 nations predicts how much gender nonconformity is related to self-esteem. Psychological Medicine, 52(10), 1857–1865. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720003645
