Secondary Deviance: Definition & Examples

What is Secondary Deviance?

The concept of secondary deviance comes from Edwin Lemert’s work on labeling theory, which explores how people’s identities can change after society labels them as “deviant.”

Once a label sticks, it can shape how a person sees themselves and how others treat them, often leading to lasting changes in behavior.

Secondary deviance happens when someone begins to accept this label and starts organizing their life around it.

The label can become part of their self-image and even guide their choices, sometimes turning into a lifestyle or “career” in deviance.

Key characteristics:

1. Identity and Lifestyle: In this stage, deviant behavior becomes part of a person’s identity and way of life. The individual may start to see themselves – and be seen by others – as someone who regularly breaks society’s rules.

2. Accepting the Role: When people accept a negative label given to them, they may continue or even increase the behavior that earned them that label. Some may adopt the “deviant” role as a way of rebelling against society’s expectations.

3. Master Status: The deviant label can become a person’s main identity, known as a master status. For example, someone may come to see themselves primarily as a “criminal,” “addict,” or “outsider.”

4. Social Organization: Once a deviant identity takes hold, it can shape social interactions and group membership. A labeled individual might begin to associate mainly with others who share that identity. 

How Secondary Deviance Differs from Primary Deviance

The transition from primary to secondary deviance is driven by the successful application of a negative label.

Sociologist Edwin Lemert suggested that:

• Primary Deviance: Refers to small or occasional acts of rule-breaking that don’t affect a person’s self-image. Most people engage in such acts at some point without being labeled or seeing themselves as criminals.

• Secondary Deviance: Begins when others apply a deviant label, and the person internalizes it. Once this new identity takes hold, it can be hard to escape. 

In essence, while primary deviance is the act, secondary deviance is the role or career that develops after the person is successfully labeled by society.

Feature	Primary Deviance	Secondary Deviance
Nature of the Act	Involves an initial rule-breaking act that may be minor or one-time.	Involves the continuation of deviant behavior after being labeled and accepting that label.
Impact on Self-Concept	Does not change how the person sees themselves; they still feel part of society.	Leads to a change in self-concept, as the person begins to view themselves as deviant.
Examples	Speeding, cheating on a test once, or minor misbehavior that’s quickly forgotten.	A student repeatedly labeled a “troublemaker” who starts acting out more, or someone caught shoplifting who begins to steal regularly.

Example of Secondary Deviance

Secondary deviance often develops when a deviant label becomes a person’s master status – the main way they are defined by others and see themselves.

Errant Schoolboy (Lemert, 1951):

1. Labels Shape Identity: Once the boy is called a “bad” or “mischievous” child, the label starts to influence how he sees himself and how others see him.
2. Reactions Reinforce Behavior: The teacher’s repeated punishment and labeling lead the child to act out more, proving the power of social reactions in shaping future behavior.
3. Peer Support Strengthens the Label: When the boy finds acceptance among other “rule-breakers,” their group forms a subculture that rewards deviant behavior instead of discouraging it.
4. A Cycle of Deviance Forms: What began as small acts of mischief (primary deviance) evolves into a deviant identity (secondary deviance) through labeling and social reinforcement.
5. A Lesson in Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Lemert’s example shows how society’s expectations can become reality – when people internalize the labels others give them, they often start to live up to them.

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The Gang Identity

1. Early Labeling: Carolyn Hamilton-Ballard was labeled a “bully-type person” and “crazy” because of her size and demeanor.
2. Acting the Role: She began to behave in ways that matched the label, initially as a performance.
3. Identity Transformation: Over time, the act became genuine—her deviant behavior turned into her real lifestyle.
4. Reinforced by Group: The gang environment rewarded and normalized her deviant behavior, strengthening her identity.
5. Deviance as Lifestyle: The label evolved into a lasting identity, showing how social expectations can shape and sustain deviant roles.

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The Formerly Incarcerated Job Seeker

1. Persistent Labeling: A criminal record marks someone as a “convict” or “addict,” even after they’ve served their sentence.

2. Social Rejection: Employers’ unwillingness to hire them reinforces feelings of exclusion and stigma.

3. Internalized Stigma: The person begins to see themselves primarily through this negative label.

4. Limited Opportunities: Rejection and marginalization make returning to a conventional life more difficult.

5. Cycle of Recidivism: The individual may return to crime, fulfilling the deviant identity that society continues to impose.

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Consequence

1. Stigma and Identity

When someone is labeled as deviant, it often creates a powerful negative identity that changes how they see themselves and how others treat them.

• Stigma: A stigma is an undesirable label that causes others to deny someone full social acceptance. It can be based on physical traits (like a disability), moral judgments (such as being seen as dishonest), or group membership (for example, belonging to a group that society discriminates against).

• Master Status: The deviant label can become a person’s main defining feature, known as their master status. For instance, someone might come to see themselves primarily as a “convict,” “addict,” or “beggar,” even if they have many other qualities.

• Spoiled Identity: Once stigmatized, people often experience what sociologist Erving Goffman called a spoiled identity—their reputation and social standing are damaged, and they’re seen mainly through the lens of the negative label.

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2. Coping with a Deviant Identity

People often develop ways to manage the emotional and social burden of being labeled.

• Deviance Avowal: Some individuals openly identify as deviant, using the label to gain control over their situation. For example, a recovering alcoholic might call themselves an “alcoholic” to resist social pressure to drink.

• Tertiary Deviance: Others reject the negative label altogether and work to redefine their behavior as normal or acceptable – such as activists reframing certain stigmatized behaviors as forms of identity or self-expression.

• Passing: Some people try to hide or downplay the stigma so they can blend in, a strategy known as passing.

• In-Group Orientation: Others embrace their identity and seek acceptance among people who share it. They may challenge mainstream views and create communities that celebrate their shared experiences.

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3. Social Consequences of Labeling

Being labeled deviant can have serious social effects, often leading to exclusion, discrimination, and weakened community ties.

• Social Rejection: People who break major social rules may be shunned or ridiculed, losing acceptance within their communities.

• Difficult Relationships: A stigma makes it hard to interact normally with others—for example, an ex-convict might struggle to rebuild trust or friendships because the “jailbird” label dominates how others see them.

• Limited Opportunities: Research shows that job applicants with a criminal record are much less likely to be hired, which can trap them in a cycle of disadvantage and continued deviance.

• Weakened Bonds: For young people, being labeled as a “troublemaker” or “delinquent” can weaken their connection to school or family, increasing the risk of ongoing misbehavior.

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4. Legal and Institutional Consequences

When deviance becomes criminalized, labeling leads to formal punishment and legal records that can follow people for life.

• Formal Sanctions: Once behavior is defined as criminal, it carries official penalties like fines, arrests, imprisonment, or expulsion from school.

• Backfiring Punishment: Instead of deterring future crime, harsh treatment can sometimes make things worse. Studies show that people punished more severely by the justice system are often more likely to reoffend.

• Resocialization in Institutions: In prisons and similar institutions, people undergo involuntary resocialization—their old identities are stripped away through humiliating processes (like uniform rules or head shaving) and replaced with new, compliant ones.

• Unequal Justice: Labels and punishments aren’t always applied fairly. Factors like race, social class, and appearance often influence who gets labeled as “criminal.” For example, poorer students or people from minority backgrounds are more likely to be arrested or punished harshly for the same behavior as more privileged peers.

• Creating the “Delinquent”: Legal systems don’t just respond to deviance – they help create categories like “delinquent” or “criminal.” These labels justify ongoing surveillance and control, reinforcing inequality and social division.

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Critical Evaluation

Labeling theory is a micro-level perspective that comes from symbolic interactionism – a branch of sociology that studies how people create meaning through social interaction.

While labeling theory has been extremely influential – especially for showing that deviance is relative (what counts as deviant depends on context) and that the powerful often define what’s “normal” – it also has a number of important limitations and criticisms.

It struggles to explain where deviance originates and why labeling affects people differently

1. Failure to Explain Primary Deviance:

A major limitation of labeling theory is that it does not explain why deviance happens in the first place.

It focuses on society’s reaction after an act has been committed but doesn’t explore what led to the initial rule-breaking (known as primary deviance).

For example, labeling theory can explain how someone continues to steal after being labeled a thief, but not why they stole the first time.

2. Mixed Evidence for Secondary Deviance:

The theory claims that being labeled increases the likelihood of continued deviance, leading to secondary deviance.

However, research findings are mixed.

Some studies do show that harsh treatment or stigmatization increases reoffending, while others find no effect or even reduced offending.

This inconsistency makes it difficult to confirm labeling theory’s main prediction.

3. Impact on Self-Image Varies:

Labeling theory assumes that being labeled deviant damages a person’s self-image, but not everyone internalizes a deviant label.

Some people reject the label and go on to lead conventional lives.

For example, an ex-offender might strongly resist identifying as a “criminal” and instead focus on rehabilitation.

4. Acceptance vs. Rejection of Labels:

Critics point out that labeling theory doesn’t explain why some people accept deviant labels and others don’t.

Two people might receive the same label (for example, “addict”), but one might internalize it and continue using substances, while another might seek treatment and reject the identity.

5. Bias in Labeling Not Always Clear:

Labeling theory argues that labeling depends heavily on non-legal factors such as race, class, and appearance.

While there are famous examples – like William Chambliss’s Saints and Roughnecks study, which showed that middle-class youth avoided punishment for the same acts that got working-class boys arrested – other research finds less consistent evidence of bias.

The extent of this inequality varies across contexts and legal systems.

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Other Interactionist Explanations (Micro-Level)

These theories, like labeling theory, focus on how deviance emerges from social interaction and meaning-making in everyday life.

1. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)

• Core Idea: People learn deviant behavior the same way they learn normal behavior—through socialization. If someone is surrounded by peers who support or engage in deviant acts, they’re more likely to imitate them.

• Criticism: It can’t fully explain spontaneous or unlearned deviance, such as crimes of passion or mental illness-related deviance.

2. Techniques of Neutralization (Sykes & Matza)

• Core Idea: Young people who break rules often justify or “neutralize” their actions to protect their self-image. They use rationalizations like “no one was hurt” or “everyone does it.” These excuses allow them to commit deviance without seeing themselves as bad people.

• Criticism: Some researchers argue that these justifications often come after the deviant act rather than before it.

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References