The First Wave of Feminism refers to the initial era of the organized women’s movement, primarily occurring during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
This period was defined by a heavy focus on legal issues, specifically suffrage (the right to vote), as activists believed women would not be viewed as equal citizens without it.
While the social movement formally began in the United States during the abolitionist period preceding the Civil War, its intellectual roots spanned across Europe and North America.
The movement’s central objectives included:
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Suffrage: Securing the legal right for women to vote in elections.
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Property Rights: Allowing married women to own, inherit, and manage property independently of their husbands.
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Education: Expanding access to higher education and professional training.
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Legal Identity: Gaining recognition as independent citizens rather than legal dependents of their spouses.
What was achieved by first-wave feminism?
While First-Wave Feminism achieved major legal and political victories, it was primarily associated with Liberal Feminism: seeking equality through reform within existing social and political systems.
Despite the right to vote, early laws regarding employment discrimination, such as unequal pay, remained legal until the mid-20th century.
Major Achievements
The most notable achievements of first-wave feminism were due to the suffrage movement.
The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution granted women the right to vote in 1920 by stipulating that the right to vote could not be denied because of sex.
Likewise, the suffrage movement in Britain won a complete victory when the Equal Franchise Act of 1928 allowed all adult women over 21 to vote.
Married Women’s Property Acts in the US and UK expanded the rights of married women to acquire, hold, use, and dispose of their separate property.
Before this, a women’s property became her husband’s upon marriage. This act was gradually enforced in the US from 1839 and became UK law in 1882.
| Achievement | Region | Date |
| Married Women’s Property Act | US / UK |
1839 (US gradual) / 1882 (UK) |
| Right to Vote (Partial) | United Kingdom |
1918 (Women over 30) |
| Right to Vote (Full) | United States |
1920 (19th Amendment) |
| Right to Vote (Full) | United Kingdom |
1928 (Equal Franchise Act) |
The history of first-wave feminism
18th Century: Intellectual Foundations
Before the movement formally organized, individual thinkers challenged the patriarchal status quo, arguing that women possessed the same rational capacity for citizenship as men.
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1792: Mary Wollstonecraft publishes A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She critiqued French revolutionaries who championed the “rights of man” while arguing women lacked the rationality required for citizenship.
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1837: Pioneering sociologist Harriet Martineau publishes Society in America. She analyzed the link between the oppression of women and slavery, arguing that women’s lack of economic power maintained their dependency.
United States (1848-1920)
In the United States, the movement emerged directly from the abolitionist movement as activists drew parallels between the condition of enslaved people and the subordination of women.
A pivotal turning point occurred when Elizabeth Cady Stanton and other women were denied a place on the floor at an abolitionist convention, sparking a demand for women’s own rights.
1848 – Seneca Falls Convention
The first wave of feminism is believed to have started around 1848, often tied to the first formal Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York.
The convention was notably run by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who were among the other 300 in attendance.
Stanton authored The Declaration of Sentiments, which expanded on the Declaration of Independence by adding the word ‘woman’ or ‘women’ throughout.
Stanton declared that all men and women were created equal, and thus, she advocated for women’s education, their right to own property, and organizational leadership.
Many of the activists believed that their goals would be hard to accomplish without women’s right to vote. Thus, for the following 70 years, this was the main goal.
1851 – Strategic Partnership Forms
Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Susan B. Anthony, beginning a 50-year collaboration traveling the country delivering speeches demanding the vote.
1851 – “Ain’t I a Woman?” Speech
Sojourner Truth, a formerly enslaved woman and abolitionist, delivered her famous speech challenging the exclusion of Black women from rights discourse and highlighting the intersections of race and gender.
1869 – The Movement Splits
Controversy over the 14th and 15th Amendments (granting voting rights to Black men) divided the movement.
Stanton and Anthony opposed these amendments, believing women should vote before Black men—a position that created lasting tensions around race.
This disagreement led to the formation of two competing organizations:
- National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) – led by Stanton and Anthony, focused on a federal constitutional amendment
- American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) – led by Lucy Stone and others, pursued state-by-state campaigns
1872 – Susan B. Anthony Arrested for Voting
One of the most dramatic moments of the first wave occurred when Susan B. Anthony was arrested for voting in the presidential election in Rochester, New York.
At her trial, she was refused the right to speak in her own defense.
When given the opportunity to speak at sentencing, she famously stated: “Resistance to tyranny is obedience to God.” She was fined $100 (which she refused to pay), but the judge didn’t jail her, preventing her from appealing to a higher court—a strategic move to avoid setting a legal precedent.
1890 – Movement Reunifies
After operating independently for over two decades, the NWSA and AWSA merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), creating a more unified and powerful movement.
1913 – Woman Suffrage Parade
Over 5,000 suffragists marched in Washington D.C. the day before President Wilson’s inauguration, facing mob violence but gaining significant national media attention.
1916 – Birth Control Movement
Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, defying New York state laws forbidding contraception distribution.
She would later found the organization that became Planned Parenthood, expanding feminist concerns beyond legal rights to reproductive autonomy.
1920 – 19th Amendment Ratified
After more than 70 years of activism, the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified, prohibiting sex-based voting discrimination.
This marked the major victory of first-wave feminism in America, though momentum began to dwindle afterward as activists shifted focus to local organizations and special interest groups.
There was a dispute in the suffrage movement regarding the 14th and 15th amendments to the US Constitution, which gave voting rights to black men. Stanton and Anthony opposed this amendment and disagreed that black men should have the right to vote before women.
This view resulted in disagreements in the suffrage movement. It prompted Stanton and Anthony to found the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869, whereas other suffragists founded the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA).
After more than two decades of operating independently, the NWSA merged with the AWSA to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890 (Davis, 2010).
In 1897, in the U.K., seventeen suffrage societies were united to create the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The leader of this was politician and writer Millicent Fawcett.
The NUWSS was viewed as unsuccessful, so in 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst set up the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in Manchester. The WSPU became known for employing more ‘militant’ strategies to gain suffrage, such as arson and hunger strikes, many of whom ended up in prison. The women of the movement became known as the suffragettes (Van Wingerden, 1999).
One of the most notable ‘militant’ feminists was suffragette Emily Davidson who was sent to prison several times for her activism. In 1913, she died as she stepped in front of the King’s horse at the Epsom Derby, causing her to be trampled by a horse. From then on, the word ‘militant’ became symbolic of media depictions of suffragists’ actions.
As the movement developed, reproductive rights became a significant issue for women. In 1916, Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the United States.
This move was made in defiance of the New York state law that forbade the distribution of contraception. Sanger would later go on to found the clinic that became Planned Parenthood.
United Kingdom (1866-1928)
The British movement was active from the mid-19th century until 1928 and became known for its division between constitutional and militant tactics.
1866 – Movement Begins
The first mass women’s suffrage petition was sent to the UK House of Commons. British suffragists used petitions and meetings to persuade parliament members.
1897 – Movement Unifies
Seventeen British suffrage societies united to create the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), led by politician and writer Millicent Fawcett. The NUWSS favored constitutional, peaceful methods—petitions, lobbying, and public meetings.
1903 – Militant Tactics Emerge
Viewing the NUWSS as unsuccessful, Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in Manchester.
The WSPU became known for employing militant strategies to gain suffrage, including arson, vandalism, and hunger strikes.
Many members ended up in prison for their actions.
The women of the WSPU movement became known as “suffragettes” to distinguish them from the more moderate “suffragists” of organizations like the NUWSS.
The term “suffragette” was initially used by newspapers as a diminutive, mocking term, but the WSPU women embraced it proudly under their motto “Deeds not Words.”
1913 – Emily Davison’s Death
Suffragette Emily Davison, who had been imprisoned multiple times for activism, died after stepping in front of the King’s horse at the Epsom Derby.
Her death became a powerful symbol of the movement’s dedication, though “militant” also became a media label used to discredit suffragists’ actions.
1918 – Partial Victory
The Representation of the People Act passed, granting voting rights to women over 30 and men over 21 in the United Kingdom.
1928 – Full Suffrage Achieved
The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act gave all women over 21 the right to vote on equal terms with men, completing the suffrage victory and marking the end of first-wave feminism in Britain.
Criticisms of first-wave feminism
Contemporary Anti-Feminist Backlash (19th & Early 20th Centuries)
During its prime, the first wave faced significant backlash from political and scientific figures who viewed the movement as a threat to social order.
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Political and Social Opposition: Critics argued that women did not possess the intelligence required to vote and that their participation in politics would “wreak havoc” on society and ruin the family structure.
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Scientific and Biological Determinism: Some thinkers used “scientific” arguments to suggest that a woman’s physiology dictated a strictly domestic role. They often asserted that women showed a “lower stage of evolution” regarding physical and sensory characteristics, casting doubt on the feasibility of public equality.
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Reactionary Views: Anti-feminist figures often criticized the movement as a symptom of societal degeneration. They advocated for a return to traditional hierarchies where women remained subservient, viewing them primarily as vessels for procreation.
Critical Perspectives and Intersectionality
While the first wave made massive strides, it has faced significant criticism for its narrow focus and exclusionary practices:
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Prioritization of White, Middle-Class Interests: The movement primarily reflected the needs of Western, affluent White women.
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Exclusion of Black Women: Despite many Black women, such as Ida B. Wells and Sojourner Truth, being active suffragists, they were often marginalized or forced to march in the back of rallies.
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Strategic Racism: Some leaders, including Stanton and Anthony, used racially charged arguments to oppose the 15th Amendment, suggesting that White women were more “deserving” of the vote than Black men.
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Economic Barriers: Even after 1920, poll taxes and literacy tests continued to disenfranchise poor women and women of color in the U.S. until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Further Information
One of the biggest criticisms of the first wave of feminism is that the focus was primarily on the rights of white, western, middle-class women.
It is misleading to assume that the women who fought for suffrage did so as a homogenous group simply because they were all women. Factors such as political stance, religion, and social class would have shaped how much involvement women would have in the movement.
In reality, some of the more conservative women in the movement adopted a segregationist approach that prioritized the voting rights of white women over Black men and women.
Many Black women were excluded from the suffrage movement or had to form their own suffrage groups. In some marches, Black women were often made to march behind white women (Duster, 2019).
The struggles of Black women, who faced additional discrimination for their race and being women, were often ignored. When abolitionist Sojourner Truth delivered her famous ‘Aint I a Woman’ speech at the women’s rights convention in 1851, many white women wanted her to be silenced, fearing that she would divert attention away from women’s suffrage (Crenshaw, 1989).
In many cases during this wave of feminism, white feminists have fought for white women’s rights while being complicit with structural racism (Brewer, 2020). Elizabeth Cady Stanton notably opposed the amendment, which granted Black men the right to vote.
Stanton, among others, argued that Black men should not be permitted to vote before white women, often using racial discrimination to push for their own rights (Davis, 1981).
Even after the vote was granted to American women in 1920, voters had to pay a fee or complete literacy tests to vote, which means that those who were poorer or without a high enough level of education would not have been able to vote.
At the time, this would have meant that African Americans in poorer communities would face barriers to voting. It would not be until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 removed any such barrier that may have stopped someone from casting their vote.
Frequently Asked Questions
What type of feminism is most associated with the first wave?
The main branch of feminism associated with the goals of first-wave feminists is liberal feminism. Liberal feminism is focused on achieving gender equality through political and legal reform within the systems already in place. Advocating for women’s right to vote, so they have the same rights as men is a liberal feminist goal.
What is a famous piece of first-wave literature?
First-wave feminism is thought to have been partly inspired by early feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft.
Her writing titled ‘The Vindication of the Rights of Women’ from 1792 was written in the wake of the French Revolution (Krolokke & Sorensen, 1996).
Wollstonecraft argued for girls and women to be allowed the same educational opportunities as men so they would be better wives, mothers, and capable workers.
Did the first wave of feminism occur globally?
Although the effects of first-wave feminism have been felt across the globe regarding achieving women”s voting rights, the activism did not occur globally during this period.
The first wave of feminism in the 19th and 20th centuries transpired in western countries, primarily in the United States and Western Europe.
References
Brewer, R. M. (2020). Black feminism and womanism. Companion to feminist studies, 91-104.
Cowman, K. (2000). Women”s suffrage campaigns in Britain. Women”s History Review, 9 (4), 815-823.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. In Feminist Legal Theories (pp. 23-51). Routledge.
Davis, A. Y. (1981). Women, race, and class. Vintage.
Davis, S. (2010). The political thought of Elizabeth Cady Stanton: women”s rights and the American political traditions. NYU Press.
Duster, M. (2019). From the Suffrage Movement to the Women”s March: Black Women”s Fight for Inclusion. Black History Bulletin, 82 (2), 10-11.
Krolokke, C., & Sorensen, A. S. (2006). Three waves of feminism: From suffragettes to grrls. Gender communication theories & analyses: From silence to performance, 1-25.
Van Wingerden, S. A. (1999). The women”s suffrage movement in Britain, 1866-1928. Palgrave Macmillan.
