Denial as a Defense Mechanism

Denial as a defense mechanism refers to the psychological process of refusing to accept or acknowledge a painful reality, thought, or feeling.

Denial shields a person from threatening stimuli by blocking the conscious awareness of negative or threatening elements of their experience.

Sigmund Freud acknowledged the prevalence of denial in the normal mental life of adults, describing it as an “ostrich policy” for avoiding distressing aspects of reality.

Freud and subsequent psychoanalytic thinkers recognized denial’s dual nature as both a potential coping mechanism and a potential source of psychological distress.

While denial can offer temporary relief from anxiety and protect self-esteem, its persistent use can hinder problem-solving, impede personal growth, and contribute to interpersonal conflicts.

In normal development, denial emerges early in life as a characteristic defense of young children and gradually declines in use as children develop more mature cognitive abilities.

However, some adults continue to rely heavily on denial, often seen in cases of addiction or relationship issues.

It’s important to note that while Sigmund Freud is often credited with the first comprehensive theory of psychological defenses, including the concept that would become known as denial, the idea emerged gradually and was refined by multiple contributors in the field of psychoanalysis.

While Freud didn’t explicitly use the term “denial” in his early works, he laid the groundwork for the concept through his theories on defense mechanisms.

He introduced the idea of “Verleugnung” (disavowal) in the 1920s, which is closely related to denial.

Freud’s daughter, Anna, further developed and systematized the theory of defense mechanisms, including denial, in her 1936 book “The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence.”

How does denial work?

Denial functions by blocking awareness of the threatening stimulus or by reinterpreting it in a less threatening way.

This distortion of reality helps minimize unacceptable motives and fears and serves to protect a person’s self-esteem and reduce anxiety.

For instance, a person might deny the personal relevance of a negative event by thinking, “This isn’t happening to me,” or they might minimize the severity of a problem by thinking, “It’s not that big of a deal.”

Threatening stimuli may be internal or external.

Internal denial involves rejecting or minimizing aspects of one’s thoughts, feelings, or impulses deemed unacceptable or threatening.

External denial involves actively avoiding situations, conversations, or information that could expose uncomfortable truths, such as dismissing medical diagnoses.

Unlike external denial, which often involves observable actions and reactions to external stimuli, internal denial operates within the realm of subjective experience, making it more challenging to observe and analyze.

Denial is an unconscious mental process. A person is generally unaware that they are using denial to defend themselves and may be unaware of the underlying motives or impulses that are driving their denial.

According to psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms are more effective at protecting a person from psychological distress when they operate outside of conscious awareness.

Once a person becomes consciously aware of a defense and how it functions, the defense is less likely to be successful.

Examples

Denial is a refusal to acknowledge or accept a threatening aspect of reality. It involves a distortion of perception, memory, or thought to avoid confronting a painful truth.

• Children’s use of fantasy and play: Anna Freud discusses how children use denial in their fantasies and play to cope with unpleasant realities. For instance, a child might imagine their strict father as a protective animal or themselves as the master of powerful figures to alleviate feelings of helplessness and anxiety. This demonstrates denial’s role in early childhood development, where it serves as a coping mechanism for navigating power dynamics and managing emotional responses.
• Creating a false sense of security: Adults might assert, “It can’t happen to me” in the face of impending danger, clinging to a sense of unique invulnerability despite statistical probabilities. This reflects a denial of potential risks and dangers, often driven by an optimism bias and a desire to maintain a sense of security and control over unpredictable events.
• Denial as a sign of psychopathology: In extreme cases, denial can manifest as a near-psychotic distortion of reality, such as when individuals with severe mental illness completely block out or misinterpret significant aspects of their environment. Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder might use denial to maintain a grandiose self-image and avoid acknowledging their flaws and limitations.

Denial as a Means of Avoiding Negative Feelings: An Example

Scenario: Imagine a student, John, who receives a failing grade on a crucial exam. This event poses a significant threat to his self-esteem, potentially evoking feelings of shame, disappointment, and anxiety.

Denial of External Reality:

• John might initially react with disbelief, refusing to accept the reality of the failing grade. He might convince himself that there’s been a mistake in grading or that the professor is biased against him. This form of denial helps him avoid the immediate emotional impact of the failure.
• John might minimize the importance of the exam, claiming it wasn’t a fair assessment of his knowledge or that the subject matter isn’t relevant to his future goals. By downplaying the significance of the event, he reduces its potential to trigger negative feelings.

Internal Denial and Distortion:

• John might repress or isolate the negative feelings associated with the failure, preventing them from fully entering his conscious awareness. He might distract himself with other activities, engage in excessive daydreaming, or focus on positive aspects of his life to avoid confronting the emotional distress.
• John might distort his internal perception of the event, attributing the failure to external factors like bad luck or a particularly difficult exam rather than acknowledging any personal shortcomings. This form of denial protects his self-esteem by shifting blame away from himself.

Projection

John might then project this anxiety onto his classmates, becoming hyper-aware of their perceived nervousness or inadequacy, even if they are performing well.

This projection allows him to externalize his internal conflict and avoid confronting his own vulnerabilities.

Is denial always a bad thing?

Denial can be a normal and even helpful coping mechanism, particularly in the short term:

1. Time to adjust: Denial can provide a person with much-needed time to adjust to a sudden, traumatic event or difficult situation. By temporarily shielding a person from the full emotional impact of the event, denial can prevent them from being overwhelmed by anxiety and distress.
2. Emotion-focused coping: Denial can function as a form of emotion-focused coping, allowing a person to regulate their emotions and maintain a sense of equilibrium in the face of a threat. This can be particularly useful when a situation is uncontrollable or when taking action is not immediately possible.
3. Preservation of self-esteem: Denial can help protect a person’s self-esteem by allowing them to downplay or dismiss negative feedback or failures.
4. Reduced distress in the short term: Some research suggests that people who use denial to cope with stressful situations may experience less psychological distress in the short term.

When does denial become a problem?

Developmental context is crucial in evaluating the impact of denial. Denial is considered a normative and developmentally appropriate defense mechanism in early childhood.

Young children lack the cognitive and emotional maturity to fully grasp or cope with complex and distressing realities.

Denial serves as a protective mechanism, allowing them to manage overwhelming emotions and navigate their environment.

However, as children mature, they are expected to develop more sophisticated coping mechanisms and gradually transition away from reliance on denial.

The persistence of denial into adolescence and adulthood is often viewed as a sign of developmental fixation or regression.

It suggests a failure to develop more mature and adaptive ways of coping with stress, anxiety, and unpleasant emotions.

In these cases, denial becomes maladaptive, hindering personal growth, problem-solving, and healthy interpersonal relationships.

Adults who rely heavily on denial may have experienced significant psychological distress in early childhood, which led them to overuse denial as a means of protecting the self. As a consequence of this overuse, denial may have become deeply embedded in their personality structure.

Denial becomes a problem when it:

1. Interferes with daily functioning: When denial prevents someone from addressing important issues or responsibilities in their life. For example, a person who denies the severity of a medical condition may not follow medical advice, potentially worsening their prognosis.
2. Interference with personal growth: Denial can hinder personal growth by preventing a person from confronting and working through difficult emotions and experiences. By avoiding painful realities, a person may miss opportunities for learning and self-improvement.
3. Damages relationships: Denial can strain relationships by creating a barrier to honest communication and mutual understanding. Individuals using denial might refuse to acknowledge their role in conflicts or dismiss the perspectives of others, leading to resentment, frustration, and a breakdown of trust in relationships.
4. Prevents seeking help: When denial keeps someone from recognizing they need professional assistance for mental health, addiction, or other issues. They may not recognize the need for help, or they may be reluctant to admit to having a problem.
5. Becomes the primary coping strategy: Excessive reliance on denial in childhood can hinder the development of more mature defense mechanisms, leading to a fixation on this less adaptive strategy. This can result in persistent difficulties in coping with stress and navigating complex emotional experiences throughout life.

Contextual Factors

Understanding the context in which denial occurs, its duration, severity, and the individual’s unique characteristics is essential for determining whether denial is adaptive or maladaptive.

Temporary denial can be a normal coping mechanism, but prolonged denial hinders personal growth and problem-solving.

The extent to which denial distorts reality is a crucial factor in determining its adaptiveness. Mild forms of denial, such as downplaying the significance of a minor setback, are less likely to be harmful than more extreme forms of denial, such as denying the existence of a serious illness.

Denial may be more adaptive in situations that are uncontrollable or where taking action is not immediately possible. However, in situations where taking action is essential, denial can be detrimental.

Recognizing Denial

Recognizing denial can be challenging because it often operates outside of conscious awareness.

Here is some advice:

Reflect on Your Own Tendencies

Self-awareness is crucial for recognizing denial in oneself. Reflect on your typical reactions to challenging situations.

• Do you tend to minimize problems or avoid confronting difficult emotions?
• Do you find yourself frequently blaming external factors for your failures or shortcomings?
• Do you struggle to acknowledge feedback that contradicts your self-image?

Honest self-reflection can help you identify patterns of denial and begin to develop healthier coping mechanisms.

Pay Attention to Unexpected Reactions and Behaviors

Denial can also manifest in emotional and behavioral responses that are incongruent with the situation.

Consider these indicators:

• Inappropriate emotional responses: Individuals using denial might exhibit emotional reactions that seem out of sync with the circumstances. For instance, they might show indifference or even cheerfulness in the face of loss, disappointment, or threatening situations.
• Avoidance behaviors: People in denial might engage in avoidance behaviors to distance themselves from the source of their anxiety or threat. They might withdraw from social interactions, refuse to discuss certain topics, or engage in distractions to avoid confronting the reality of their situation.

Consider Age and Developmental Appropriateness

Denial is a common and often age-appropriate defense mechanism in young children. However, as individuals mature, they should develop more complex and adaptive ways of coping with stress and unpleasant emotions.

The persistence of denial into adolescence and adulthood is often a sign of developmental fixation or regression and is likely to have negative consequences.

How is denial treated?

It’s important to note that treating denial is a complex and individualized process that requires a flexible and sensitive approach.

The specific techniques used will vary depending on the individual’s unique circumstances, the severity of their denial, and the underlying psychological issues contributing to its use.

Recognizing Denial as a Defense

The first step in addressing denial is recognizing its presence and function in a person’s life. This involves:

• Understanding the Underlying Threat: It’s essential to uncover the underlying threat or fear that the denial is protecting the individual from. Exploring the individual’s personal history, relationships, and current stressors can provide valuable insights into the origins and purpose of their denial.
• Careful Assessment: A thorough psychological assessment is crucial to identify patterns of denial and understand how they manifest in the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This might involve clinical interviews, psychological testing, and observation of the individual’s interactions and responses to different situations.

Establishing a Therapeutic Alliance

Building a strong therapeutic relationship is crucial when working with individuals who use denial.

This requires:

• Empathy and Patience: Individuals using denial often feel vulnerable and threatened when their defenses are challenged. Approaching them with empathy and patience is vital to avoid triggering further defensiveness and resistance.
• Non-Judgmental Approach: It’s important to create a safe and non-judgmental space where the individual feels comfortable exploring their thoughts and feelings without fear of criticism or shame. This involves validating their experience and acknowledging the difficulty of confronting painful realities.

Gradually Challenging Denial

Once a trusting relationship is established, the therapist can begin to gently challenge the individual’s denial.

This involves:

• Presenting Discrepancies: The therapist can help the individual recognize discrepancies between their denial and objective reality by presenting factual information, pointing out inconsistencies in their narratives, and highlighting the consequences of their denial.
• Encouraging Reflection: The therapist can encourage the individual to reflect on their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, prompting them to question their own perceptions and interpretations of events. This involves asking open-ended questions, facilitating self-exploration, and promoting introspection.

Addressing Underlying Issues

As the individual begins to confront their denial, it’s essential to address the underlying emotional issues and psychological conflicts that contribute to its use.

This might involve:

• Processing Trauma: If the denial stems from traumatic experiences, trauma-focused therapies can help the individual process their trauma, develop coping mechanisms for managing their emotional responses, and gradually integrate the traumatic event into their life narrative.
• Strengthening Ego Functioning: Therapies focused on ego strengthening can help individuals develop healthier coping strategies, improve impulse control, enhance emotional regulation, and foster a more realistic and adaptive view of themselves and the world.

Fostering Adaptive Coping

The ultimate goal of treating denial is to help individuals develop healthier and more adaptive ways of coping with stress, anxiety, and unpleasant emotions.

This involves:

• Identifying Alternative Strategies: The therapist can work with the individual to identify alternative coping strategies that are more effective in managing their emotional responses and addressing the underlying issues contributing to their denial. This might involve exploring cognitive reframing techniques, relaxation exercises, mindfulness practices, or problem-solving skills.
• Building Resilience: Therapy can focus on building the individual’s resilience and ability to tolerate discomfort, helping them to confront challenges without resorting to denial. This involves fostering self-compassion, developing a more balanced self-image, and promoting a growth mindset that embraces challenges as opportunities for learning and growth.

Sources

Cramer, P. (2015). Defense mechanisms: 40 years of empirical research. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97(2), 114-122.

Freud, A. (1937). The Ego and the mechanisms of defense, London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis.

Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61.

Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defense. SE, 3: 157-185.

Freud, S. (1933). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis. Pp. xi + 240.

Freud, S. (1936). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 5(1), 1-28.

Holmes, D. S. (1978). Projection as a defense mechanism. Psychological Bulletin, 85(4), 677.