Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions, and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others.
Key Takeaways
- Definition: Social psychology examines how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence or actions of others. It bridges the gap between individual psychology and broader social forces.
- Core Concepts: The field explores key ideas such as conformity, obedience, persuasion, group dynamics, and social perception—revealing how social context shapes human behavior.
- Famous Experiments: Landmark studies by researchers like Asch, Milgram, and Zimbardo demonstrated the powerful effects of social pressure, authority, and roles on individual actions.
- Research Methods: Social psychologists use controlled experiments, surveys, and observations to study real and simulated social interactions, aiming to uncover consistent patterns of behavior.
- Real-World Impact: Insights from social psychology help explain everyday issues like prejudice, attraction, cooperation, and the influence of social media on opinions and decision-making.
Baron, Byrne, and Suls (1989) define social psychology as “the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations” (p. 6).
Topics examined in social psychology include the self-concept, social cognition, attribution theory, social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes, and stereotypes.
Principles
Social psychology operates on several foundational assumptions. These fundamental beliefs provide a framework for theories, research, and interpretations.
- Individual and Society Interplay: Social psychologists assume an interplay exists between individual minds and the broader social context. An individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are continuously shaped by social interactions, and in turn, individuals influence the societies they are a part of.
- Behavior is Contextual: One core assumption is that behavior can vary significantly based on the situation or context. While personal traits and dispositions matter, the circumstances or social environment often play a decisive role in determining behavior.
- Objective Reality is Difficult to Attain: Our perceptions of reality are influenced by personal beliefs, societal norms, and past experiences. Therefore, our understanding of “reality” is subjective and can be biased or distorted.
- Social Reality is Constructed: Social psychologists believe that individuals actively construct their social world. Through processes like social categorization, attribution, and cognitive biases, people create their understanding of others and societal norms.
- People are Social Beings with a Need to Belong: A fundamental assumption is the inherent social nature of humans. People have an innate need to connect with others, form relationships, and belong to groups. This need influences a wide range of behaviors and emotions.
- Attitudes Influence Behavior: While this might seem straightforward, it’s a foundational belief that our attitudes (combinations of beliefs and feelings) can and often do drive our actions. However, it’s also understood that this relationship can be complex and bidirectional.
- People Desire Cognitive Consistency: This is the belief that people are motivated to maintain consistency in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Cognitive dissonance theory, which posits that people feel discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs and are motivated to resolve this, is based on this assumption.
- People are Motivated to See Themselves in a Positive Light: The self plays a central role in social psychology. It’s assumed that individuals are generally motivated to maintain and enhance a positive self-view.
- Behavior Can be Predicted and Understood: An underlying assumption of any science, including social psychology, is that phenomena (in this case, human behavior in social contexts) can be studied, understood, predicted, and potentially influenced.
- Cultural and Biological Factors are Integral: Though earlier social psychology might have been criticized for neglecting these factors, contemporary social psychology acknowledges the roles of both biology (genes, hormones, brain processes) and culture (norms, values, traditions) in shaping social behavior.
History
Early Influences
Aristotle believed that humans were naturally sociable, a necessity that allows us to live together (an individual-centered approach), whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the individual and encouraged social responsibility through social context (a socio-centered approach).
Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that society has inevitable links with the development of the social mind. This led to the idea of a group mind, which is important in the study of social psychology.
Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo-European influences in 1860. “Volkerpsychologie” emerged, which focused on the idea of a collective mind.
It emphasized the notion that personality develops because of cultural and community influences, especially through language, which is both a social product of the community as well as a means of encouraging particular social thought in the individual.
Therefore Wundt (1900–1920) encouraged the methodological study of language and its influence on the social being.
Early Texts
Texts focusing on social psychology first emerged in the 20th century.
McDougall published the first notable book in English in 1908 (An Introduction to Social Psychology), which included chapters on emotion and sentiment, morality, character, and religion, quite different from those incorporated in the field today.
He believed social behavior was innate/instinctive and, therefore, individual, hence his choice of topics. This belief is not the principle upheld in modern social psychology, however.
Allport’s work (1924) underpins current thinking to a greater degree, as he acknowledged that social behavior results from interactions between people.
He also took a methodological approach, discussing actual research and emphasizing that the field was a “science … which studies the behavior of the individual in so far as his behavior stimulates other individuals, or is itself a reaction to this behavior” (1942: p. 12).
His book also dealt with topics still evident today, such as emotion, conformity, and the effects of an audience on others.
Murchison (1935) published The first handbook on social psychology was published by Murchison in 1935.
Murphy & Murphy (1931/37) produced a book summarizing the findings of 1,000 studies in social psychology.
A text by Klineberg (1940) looked at the interaction between social context and personality development. By the 1950s, several texts were available on the subject.
Journal Development
- 1950s – Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
- 1963 – Journal of Personality, British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology
- 1965 – Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
- 1971 – Journal of Applied Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology
- 1975 – Social Psychology Quarterly, Personality and Social Psychology Bulleti
- 1982 – Social Cognition
- 1984 – Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
Early Experiments
There is some disagreement about the first true experiment, but the following are certainly among some of the most important.
Triplett (1898) applied the experimental method to investigate the performance of cyclists and schoolchildren on how the presence of others influences overall performance – thus, how individuals are affected and behave in the social context.
By 1935, the study of social norms had developed, looking at how individuals behave according to the rules of society.
This was conducted by Sherif (1935).
Lewin et al. then began experimental research into leadership and group processes by 1939, looking at effective work ethics under different leadership styles.
Later Developments
Much of the key research in social psychology developed following World War II, when people became interested in the behavior of individuals when grouped together and in social situations.
Key studies were carried out in several areas.
Some studies focused on how attitudes are formed, changed by the social context, and measured to ascertain whether a change has occurred.
Amongst some of the most famous works in social psychology is that on obedience conducted by Milgram in his “electric shock” study, which looked at the role an authority figure plays in shaping behavior.
Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison simulation notably demonstrated conformity to given roles in the social world.
Wider topics then began to emerge, such as social perception, aggression, relationships, decision-making, pro-social behavior, and attribution, many of which are central to today’s topics and will be discussed throughout this website.
Thus, the growth years of social psychology occurred during the decades following the 1940s.
Core Theories
The scope of social psychology is vast, reflecting the myriad ways social factors intertwine with individual cognition and behavior.
Its principles and findings resonate in virtually every area of human interaction, making it a vital field for understanding and improving the human experience.
- Interpersonal Relationships: This covers attraction, love, jealousy, friendship, and group dynamics. Understanding how and why relationships form and the factors that contribute to their maintenance or dissolution is central to this domain.
- Attitude Formation and Change: How do individuals form opinions and attitudes? What methods can effectively change them? This scope includes the study of persuasion, propaganda, and cognitive dissonance.
- Social Cognition: This examines how people process, store, and apply information about others. Areas include social perception, heuristics, stereotypes, and attribution theories.
- Social Influence: The study of conformity, compliance, obedience, and the myriad ways individuals influence one another falls within this domain.
- Group Dynamics: This entails studying group behavior, intergroup relations, group decision-making processes, leadership, and more. Concepts like groupthink and group polarization emerge from this area.
- Prejudice and Discrimination: Understanding the roots of bias, racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice, as well as exploring interventions to reduce them, is a significant focus.
- Self and Identity: Investigating self-concept, self-esteem, self-presentation, and the social construction of identity are all part of this realm.
- Prosocial Behavior and Altruism: Why do individuals sometimes help others, even at a cost to themselves? This area delves into the motivations and conditions that foster cooperative and altruistic behavior.
- Aggression: From understanding the underlying causes of aggressive behavior to studying societal factors that exacerbate or mitigate aggression, this topic seeks to dissect the nature of hostile actions.
- Cultural and Cross-cultural Dimensions: As societies become more interconnected, understanding cultural influences on behavior, cognition, and emotion is crucial. This area compares and contrasts behaviors across different cultures and societal groups.
- Environmental and Applied Settings: Social psychology principles find application in health psychology, environmental behavior, organizational behavior, consumer behavior, and more.
- Social Issues: Social psychologists might study the impact of societal structures on individual behavior, exploring topics like poverty, urban stress, and crime.
- Education: Principles of social psychology enhance teaching methods, address issues of classroom dynamics, and promote effective learning.
- Media and Technology: In the digital age, understanding the effects of media consumption, the dynamics of online communication, and the formation of online communities is increasingly relevant.
- Law: Insights from social psychology inform areas such as jury decision-making, eyewitness testimony, and legal procedures.
- Health: Concepts from social psychology are employed to promote health behaviors, understand doctor-patient dynamics, and tackle issues like addiction.
Famous Experiments
Allport (1920) – Social Facilitation
Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others (the social group) can facilitate certain behavior.
Perhaps the first social psychology laboratory experiment was undertaken in this area by Norman Triplett in 1898.
In his research on the speed records of cyclists, he noticed that racing against each other rather than against the clock alone increased the cyclists’ speeds.
Additional research found that an audience would improve an actor’s performance in well-learned/easy tasks but leads to a decrease in performance on newly learned/difficult tasks due to social inhibition.
Bandura (1963) Social Learning Theory
Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in the social world could be modeled.
Three groups of children watched a video where an adult was aggressive towards a bobo doll, and the adult was either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behavior, or was punished for it.
Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be more likely to copy such behavior.
Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, Schacter, and Black brought up the idea that when we hold beliefs, attitudes, or cognitions which are different, then we experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes discomfort.
We are motivated to reduce this by either changing one of our thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes or selectively attending to information that supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other (selective exposure hypothesis).
Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or decisions or when people participate in behavior that is contrary to their attitude.
Dissonance is thus brought about by effort justification (when aiming to reach a modest goal), induced compliance (when people are forced to comply contrary to their attitude), and free choice (when weighing up decisions).
Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory
When divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice results simply from the awareness that there is an “out-group” (the other group).
When the boys were asked to allocate points to others (which might be converted into rewards) who were either part of their own group or the out-group, they displayed a strong in-group preference.
That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys who they believed to be in the same group as themselves.
This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s social identity theory, which states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of personal and social identity.
This is partly achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s own group, focusing on distinctions between other “lesser” groups.
Weiner (1986) – Attribution Theory
Weiner was interested in the attributions made for experiences of success and failure and introduced the idea that we look for explanations of behavior in the social world.
He believed that these were made based on three areas: locus, which could be internal or external; stability, which is whether the cause is stable or changes over time: and controllability.
Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment
Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on learning but always acted as the teacher when they were then responsible for going over paired associate learning tasks.
When the learner (a stooge) got the answer wrong, they were told by a scientist that they had to deliver an electric shock.
This did not actually happen, although the participant was unaware of this as they had themselves a sample (real!) shock at the start of the experiment.
They were encouraged to increase the voltage given after each incorrect answer up to a maximum voltage, and it was found that all participants gave shocks up to 300v, with 65 percent reaching the highest level of 450v.
It seems that obedience is most likely to occur in an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of an authority figure, especially when covert pressure is put upon people to obey.
It is also possible that it occurs because the participant felt that someone other than themselves was responsible for their actions.
Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) – Stanford Prison Experiment
Volunteers took part in a simulation where they were randomly assigned the role of a prisoner or guard and taken to a converted university basement resembling a prison environment.
There was some basic loss of rights for the prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested, and given a uniform and an identification number (they were therefore deindividuated).
The study showed that conformity to social roles occurred as part of the social interaction, as both groups displayed more negative emotions, and hostility and dehumanization became apparent.
Prisoners became passive, whilst the guards assumed an active, brutal, and dominant role.
Although normative and informational social influence played a role here, deindividuation/the loss of a sense of identity seemed most likely to lead to conformity.
Both this and Milgram’s study introduced the notion of social influence and the ways in which this could be observed/tested.
Current Issues and Trends
Current issues and trends reflect major shifts in human behavior, technology, and societal complexity, moving beyond traditional laboratory experiments to address real-world phenomena such as the pervasive influence of digital media and intensifying political divides.
1. The Influence of Digital Media and Technology
The emergence of virtual daily behavior and widespread use of mobile technology have created a major new domain of investigation for social psychologists.
Social Media and Isolation/Anxiety
The relationship between social media and mental well-being is a current focus, particularly in clinical and existential-humanistic (EH) psychology contexts, which often intersect with social psychology.
- Social Media Addiction and Existential Isolation: Compulsive engagement in social media is suggested to be a contemporary supplement to maladaptive defenses against existential isolation.
- Social Media-Induced Anxiety: Research is warranted regarding the effectiveness of therapeutic strategies, such as EH therapy, for preventing and treating social media–induced anxiety like the fear of missing out (FOMO) in adolescents, especially given the isolation experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic and in the current hypertechnologized era.
- Digital Disconnection: Social psychologists are asking questions about how new technologies have shaped attraction and social connections. Research suggests that smartphones and other mobile devices can undermine social connectedness. One study found that limiting social media usage decreases loneliness and depression. Another study examined social media stress and its relationship with sleep in adolescents.
- Virtual Behavior as a Research Target: Researchers are increasingly viewing virtual behavior (how people act and interact on the Internet) as being as serious as “actual” behavior, making it a legitimate area of investigation.
Social Media and Group Dynamics/Influence
Social media platforms are not just communication tools; they are powerful mechanisms for social influence and data collection.
- Cyberbullying: This repeated behavior intended to cause psychological or emotional harm is a focus of research, particularly concerning its causes, effects, and remedies among youth. It is one aspect of social violence that has been studied in psychology.
- Social Norms on Digital Platforms: Social norms—expectations of appropriate behavior—are everywhere, including on social media outlets. Social norms can be rapidly communicated through social media. Researchers explicitly ask what some social norms are on sites like Facebook or Instagram.
- Online Social Influence: Experimental research designs are being exported into online settings. A pioneering study demonstrated the potent effects of online social influence when testing peer feedback on voting behavior, noting that online political-mobilization messages cumulatively resulted in an estimated 340,000 additional votes due to indirect social contagion effects. The role of normative social influence in trends like the polar plunge and the ALS ice bucket challenge which went viral on social media is also discussed.
- Deindividuation Online: The tendency of deindividuation (loss of self-awareness in a group) has been updated to consider how it is manifested in on-line contexts, such as the phenomenon of the Internet “troll,” which is enabled by feelings of anonymity.
- Attraction and Dating Apps: The impact of technology on close relationships is a new area of inquiry, exemplified by new opening vignettes focusing on Tinder and other dating-related apps/websites.
2. Group Polarization and Sociopolitical Issues
Social psychology has long studied group processes, but modern trends include research on how these dynamics contribute to political extremism and conflict resolution in a diverse world.
Group Polarization and Partisanship
Group polarization is defined as the strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group.
- Extreme Views: If a group initially favors a viewpoint, discussion will likely lead to a stronger endorsement of that viewpoint (or vice versa, leading to stronger opposition). Group polarization helps explain actions taken by groups that would not be undertaken by individuals.
- Political Context: Recently, some theorists have argued that group polarization may be partly responsible for the extreme political partisanship that seems ubiquitous in modern society. This is exacerbated when people self-select media outlets consistent with their political views, leading to less exposure to opposing viewpoints and a strengthening of their own perspective, alongside potentially hostile attitudes toward others.
- Mechanisms: Group polarization occurs because of the persuasive arguments interpretation (exposure to new supporting arguments) and the social comparison interpretation (individuals shift to a more extreme stance to fit in and be liked by taking a position similar to everyone else’s but a little more extreme).
Social Justice, Diversity, and Cultural Context
A major modern area of focus involves questioning the Western, individualistic foundation of psychology and incorporating multicultural and social justice perspectives.
- Multicultural/Liberatory Perspectives: Psychology needs to consider the implications of multicultural, social justice, and liberatory perspectives for research and epistemology. Taking these critiques seriously has the potential to be transformative to the entire field of psychology, calling into question problematic foundational assumptions.
- Critique of Western Bias: Mainstream approaches to psychology often impose values like rationalism, individualism, objectivity, and improved functionality on colonized populations. There is a recognition of the dominance of Western White male perspectives and the exclusion of other voices in determining what constitutes the “good life” or upholding the status quo.
- Structural Injustice: Future research is needed regarding the experiences and existential treatment of individuals confronted with a lack of privileges, such as those belonging to an ethnic or socioeconomic minority group, or suffering from structural injustice and moral injustice. Research has applied terror management theory to psychological topics including racism, nationalism, and extremist responses.
- Interdependence and Healing: Marginalized epistemologies underscore the notion that relationships are crucial to healing (a value more conducive to understanding and enacting genuineness in therapy) by honoring individuals’ interdependence. Cultural issues influence concepts like individualist versus collectivist identities.
- The Global Community: Recent efforts in positive psychology have focused on extending its principles toward peace and well-being at the level of the global community, suggesting that a “positive peace psychology” could help in overcoming oppression and working toward global peace in a world common with conflict, hatred, and distrust. Sociocultural experiences, such as experiences of racial discrimination and/or socioeconomic disparities, are increasingly seen as interacting with neuropsychological factors to determine risk or resilience for disorders like anxiety.
- Gender and Identity Politics: There is a rapid change in perceptions of gender roles, media portrayals, and legal trends relating to gender, including the surge in acceptance of homosexuality and gender questioning. Modern youth are increasingly viewing gender as a spectrum instead of a strict male/female binary. The intersection of social context and identity politics forms a critical area of focus.
3. Interdisciplinary Integration and Advanced Methodology
Social psychology is adopting advanced methods and collaborating with other fields to study social phenomena with greater precision.
- Social Neuroscience: This is a developing subfield that uses advanced technologies like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) to correlate different kinds of brain activity with social information processing. The goal is to investigate the connection between biological processes and social behavior. For example, social neuroscience has been used to study racial bias by examining activation of the amygdala.
- Computational Approaches: These approaches are burgeoning areas of research, offering tools for disentangling complex dysfunctions and mechanisms related to mental health. Theory-driven, mechanistic models develop algorithms concerning how the brain implements certain computations and how they result in behavior, helping to identify potential targets for behavioral interventions.
- “Smartphone Psychology” and Ecological Assessment: The rise of smartphones presents immense potential for scientific data collection and intervention. These devices automatically store vast amounts of real-world user interaction data and utilize sensors to track physical (e.g., location) and social context (e.g., wireless connections) of interactions. This is part of the broader methodological shift toward Ambulatory Assessment, which assesses behavior and environments in naturalistic settings.
- Applied Social Problem Solving: There is an ongoing focus on applying social psychological theories and methods to address pressing social problems like reducing violence and prejudice, increasing altruism and tolerance, inducing people to conserve resources, practicing safe sex, and eating healthier food. Researchers study issues like conflict resolution within groups, juries, and between nations.
Strengths
Provides Clear Predictions
As a scientific discipline, social psychology prioritizes formulating clear and testable hypotheses.
This clarity facilitates empirical testing, ensuring the field’s findings are based on observable and quantifiable phenomena.
Example:
The Asch conformity experiments hypothesized that individuals would conform to a group’s incorrect judgment.
The clear prediction allowed for controlled experimentation to determine the extent and conditions of such conformity.
Emphasizes Objective Measurement
Social psychology leans heavily on empirical methods, emphasizing objectivity. This means that results are less influenced by biases or subjective interpretations.
Example
Double-blind procedures, controlled settings, and standardized measures in many social psychology experiments ensure that results are replicable and less prone to experimenter bias.
Empirical Evidence
Over the years, a multitude of experiments in social psychology have bolstered the credibility of its theories. This experimental validation lends weight to its findings and claims.
Example:
The robust body of experimental evidence supporting cognitive dissonance theory, from Festinger’s initial studies to more recent replications, showcases the theory’s enduring strength and relevance.
Limitations
Underestimates Individual Differences
While social psychology often looks at broad trends and general behaviors, it can sometimes gloss over individual differences.
Not everyone conforms, obeys, or reacts in the same way, and these nuanced differences can be critical.
Example:
While Milgram’s obedience experiments showcased a startling rate of compliance to authority, there were still participants who resisted, and their reasons and characteristics are equally important to understand.
Ignores Biology
While social psychology focuses on the social environment’s impact on behavior, early theories sometimes neglect the biological underpinnings that play a role.
Hormones, genetics, and neurological factors can influence behavior and might intersect with social factors in complex ways.
Example:
The role of testosterone in aggressive behavior is a clear instance where biology intersects with the social. Ignoring such biological components can lead to an incomplete understanding.
Superficial Snapshots of Social Processes
Social psychology sometimes offers a narrow view, capturing only a momentary slice of a broader, evolving process.
This might mean that the field fails to capture the depth, evolution, or intricacies of social processes over time.
Example:
A study might capture attitudes towards a social issue at a single point in time, but not account for the historical evolution, future shifts, or deeper societal underpinnings of those attitudes.
References
Allport, F. H. (1920). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(3), 159.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Response to social stimulation in the group. Social psychology, 260-291.
Allport, F. H. (1942). Methods in the study of collective action phenomena. The Journal of Social Psychology, 15(1), 165-185.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(6), 601.
Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., & Suls, J. (1989). Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. Baron et al, Social Psychology. 3rd edn. MA: Allyn and Bacon, 79-101.
Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). Social processes in informal groups.
Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). Study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Reviews, 9(1-17).
Klineberg, O. (1940). The problem of personality.
Krewer, B., & Jahoda, G. (1860). On the scope of Lazarus and Steinthals “Völkerpsychologie” as reflected in the. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1890, 4-12.
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates”. The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269-299.
Mcdougall, W. (1908). An introduction to social psychology. Londres: Methuen.
Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371.
Murchison, C. (1935). A handbook of social psychology.
Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental social psychology.
Sherif, M. (1935). A study of some social factors in perception. Archives of Psychology (Columbia University).
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European journal of social psychology, 1(2), 149-178.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American journal of Psychology, 9(4), 507-533.
Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
