Durkheim’s theory views society as more than just a collection of individuals — it’s a system guided by social facts, or shared norms and values that shape behavior. He explained how social order is maintained through solidarity, how breakdowns lead to anomie, and why religion and morality are central to social life. His theory laid the foundation for functionalism and modern sociology.
Key Takeaways
- Founding Sociology: Helped establish sociology as a separate academic discipline, distinct from philosophy and psychology, and showed that society could be studied scientifically.
- Functionalism: Developed a structural-functionalist approach that viewed society as an interconnected system where institutions work together to maintain stability and order.
- Social Facts: Introduced the concept of social facts — external norms, values, and rules that shape individual behavior — and argued these should be the main focus of sociological study.
- Collective Conscience: The shared moral beliefs and attitudes that unify society.
- Anomie: A state of normlessness that occurs when social regulation breaks down.
Émile Durkheim, often called the father of sociology believed that society is composed of structures that function together, and that society has a structure of its own apart from the individuals within it.
Functionalism
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) helped establish sociology as its own academic discipline and developed a perspective known as functionalism.
Functionalism sees society as a system of interrelated parts, much like a living organism.
Just as the heart, lungs, and brain work together to keep the body alive, institutions such as family, religion, law, and education work together to maintain social order and stability.
From this perspective, every part of society has a role, or function, that contributes to the whole.
Durkheim argued that society is more than just a collection of individuals.
Instead, it has a reality of its own, with structures and forces that shape, constrain, and sometimes even coerce individual behavior.
He called these forces social facts — the norms, values, laws, customs, and beliefs that exist outside of individuals but still exert power over them.
For Durkheim, people are products of their social environment, and human behavior can only be fully understood by examining these larger patterns.
Durkheim was especially concerned with the question of social order: how do societies hold together when individuals have different needs and interests?
His answer was the idea of social solidarity — the bonds that tie people together into a community.
Related to this was the collective conscience, or the shared moral beliefs and values that give societies a sense of unity and purpose.
There are two key ideas in Durkheim’s works that illustrate his functionalist approach:
1. Society as a reality of its own
Durkheim argued that society exists above and beyond the individuals who make it up.
People’s thoughts and actions are shaped by social facts — patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling that are external to individuals yet exert a powerful influence.
Examples include moral codes, traditions, religious beliefs, and laws.
These shape human behavior not through personal choice alone but through the common beliefs and expectations shared across society.
2. The dangers of unlimited freedom
Durkheim believed that when individuals have too much freedom without clear moral guidance, they risk falling into anomie — a state of normlessness and confusion.
To prevent this, societies need strong institutions and shared values that give people a sense of belonging, purpose, and direction.
Families, schools, religions, workplaces, and voluntary groups all play an important role in creating and maintaining social solidarity.
Through his functionalist perspective, Durkheim showed both the stability provided by social structures and the risks societies face when shared norms break down.
Social Solidarity
Durkheim was deeply concerned with the question of social order — how societies manage to stay stable and hold people together.
He argued that as societies grow and change, the way people feel connected to one another also changes.
He called this connection social solidarity.
The type of solidarity binding people together depends on the level of division of labour and the overall complexity of the society.
In The Division of Labor in Society (1893), Durkheim explored how social solidarity changes as societies become more complex. He identified two main types:
1. Mechanical Solidarity
Typical of pre-industrial, small-scale, homogeneous societies (where people are largely similar in work, values, and beliefs).
Most individuals do similar kinds of work, follow the same religion, and rely heavily on family and tradition.
Because of this, people tend to think and act alike, and there is strong pressure to conform.
The group is more important than the individual, and belonging feels almost automatic because of shared values and routines.
2. Organic Solidarity
In contrast, modern, industrial societies are large and complex, with people performing many different and highly specialized jobs.
Here, unity does not come from similarity but from interdependence — people rely on one another to meet their needs.
For example, teachers, doctors, farmers, and engineers all do different work, but society functions because each role depends on the others.
This is like the organs of a body working together to keep the whole organism alive.
Durkheim emphasized that while organic solidarity allows greater individual freedom and diversity, the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity can produce instability.
This may result in anomie — a state of normlessness in which individuals feel disconnected and uncertain about their place in society.
Collective Conscience & Anomie
Central to Durkheim’s explanation of social order is the concept of the collective conscience.
This refers to the shared beliefs, morals, and attitudes that create a common framework for society — what Durkheim called the “will of society as a whole.”
The collective conscience gives people a sense of belonging and moral guidance, helping to hold communities together.
According to Durkheim, laws are an objective expression of this collective conscience because they formalize social norms and apply them to everyone.
However, Durkheim argued that when these moral ties weaken, societies can fall into a state of anomie.
Anomie literally means “without law” and describes a condition of normlessness, where traditional norms and values no longer regulate behavior and no clear alternatives replace them.
This breakdown often happens during periods of rapid social change — such as industrialization, economic crises, or war — when old rules no longer apply but new ones have not yet formed.
Individuals living in an anomic society may feel aimless, anxious, and disconnected, lacking a clear sense of purpose.
In these circumstances, people may retreat into self-interest instead of working toward collective goals.
Durkheim warned that if the collective conscience is weakened for too long, it can lead to rising levels of crime and deviance, further undermining social solidarity and potentially pushing society toward collapse.
Social Facts
One of Durkheim’s most important contributions to sociology is the concept of social facts.
He defined social facts as ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside the individual but have the power to shape and constrain behavior.
In other words, they are the rules, norms, and values that guide social life.
Social facts are external because they come from society, not from any single person. They are also coercive, meaning they exert pressure on individuals to behave in particular ways.
For Durkheim, this showed that society is more than the sum of individuals — it has its own reality that can be studied scientifically.
Examples of social facts include:
-
Laws: written rules that formally regulate behavior (e.g., traffic laws, property rights).
-
Norms and customs: unwritten rules of everyday life (e.g., table manners, dress codes).
-
Moral beliefs: shared ideas of right and wrong.
-
Language: a system of communication that exists before we are born and shapes how we think.
Durkheim argued that social facts should be the main object of sociology.
Just as natural scientists study physical phenomena, sociologists should study social facts as things — observable, measurable, and external to individuals.
He also distinguished between normal social facts (those that serve a useful function for society, like law or religion) and pathological social facts (those that signal breakdowns in order, like high levels of crime or anomie).
By highlighting social facts, Durkheim shifted attention away from purely psychological or biological explanations of behavior.
Instead, he showed that to understand why people act as they do, we must look at the social structures, norms, and collective forces that surround them.
Crime & Deviance
Durkheim famously argued that crime and deviance are normal and necessary features of every society.
He even suggested that in a “society of saints” — a community of morally perfect individuals — minor rule-breaking would still be defined as deviant.
Since crime exists everywhere, Durkheim reasoned that it must serve positive social functions.
He identified several key functions of crime and deviance:
-
Clarifying moral boundaries: When rules are broken, society responds through punishment or public disapproval. This reaction reminds people of what is acceptable and reinforces the collective conscience. In this way, deviance helps maintain order by reaffirming shared norms and values.
-
Strengthening social bonds: Public outrage at criminal acts can unite law-abiding members of society, creating a stronger sense of social solidarity. Coming together against deviance reinforces communal ties and strengthens group identity.
-
Promoting social change: Deviance can also play a creative role by challenging outdated laws and practices. Criminal behavior may highlight injustices or push society to re-examine its values. Laws often lag behind social attitudes, and deviance can act as a catalyst for legal reform.
Durkheim even noted that too little crime could be a warning sign.
A society with excessive conformity and harsh social controls may suppress necessary criticism and dissent, preventing healthy adaptation and progress.
In this sense, deviance is not only unavoidable but essential for social life.
The Study of Suicide
Durkheim’s groundbreaking book Suicide (1897) is often described as the first major sociological study to use statistical methods.
It set out to prove that suicide — often seen as a deeply personal act — could be explained by social factors rather than just individual psychology or biology.
Using population data collected by governments across several European countries, Durkheim analyzed about 26,000 recorded suicides.
He compared rates across categories such as age, sex, marital status, religion, location, and even time of year.
His findings showed that suicide rates varied depending on group characteristics and, most importantly, on the level of social integration (how strongly people are tied to others) and social regulation (the extent to which norms guide their lives).
Durkheim identified three main types of suicide:
-
Egoistic suicide: Occurs when individuals are not sufficiently integrated into society. Weak social ties — for example, being unmarried or socially isolated — leave people vulnerable. Durkheim found higher suicide rates among unmarried people and among Protestants compared to Catholics, reflecting weaker communal bonds.
-
Altruistic suicide: Happens when individuals are too strongly integrated into society and feel compelled to sacrifice themselves for the group. Examples include mass suicides within religious cults, Japanese kamikaze pilots in World War II, or soldiers who give their lives for their country.
-
Anomic suicide: Arises when social regulation breaks down, leaving individuals without clear norms or guidance. This often occurs during times of social upheaval, such as economic depression, sudden prosperity, or rapid modernization. Without clear rules, people may feel aimless and disconnected, leading to higher suicide rates.
Through this study, Durkheim demonstrated that suicide is not simply a private, individual decision but a social phenomenon shaped by integration and regulation.
His work showed that sociology could use scientific methods — like statistics — to study complex human behavior.
Religion
Durkheim defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things … which unite into one single moral community, called a church.”
He was the first sociologist to study religion scientifically, treating it not as a matter of personal faith but as a social institution that could be observed and analyzed.
Durkheim argued that every society makes a basic distinction between the sacred (things that are extraordinary, awe-inspiring, and often connected to the divine) and the profane (things that are ordinary, everyday, and non-spiritual).
For him, this distinction was the foundation of all religions.
The essential function of religion, according to Durkheim, was to act as a mirror of society.
Through sacred symbols, rituals, and ceremonies, people are not just worshipping gods or supernatural forces — they are really affirming the values and unity of their own community.
In this way, religion reminds members of their shared past, present, and future, reinforcing a sense of belonging.
Durkheim identified three main social functions of religion:
-
Social cohesion and integration: Religion brings people together, fostering community, belonging, and social solidarity.
-
Social control and behavior consistency: By teaching norms, values, and moral rules, religion helps regulate behavior and maintain order.
-
Meaning and purpos: Religion provides comfort and guidance in times of uncertainty, offering explanations for life’s transitions and tragedies, including death — things that science alone cannot fully address.
Durkheim saw religion as a powerful force for socialization and social bonding.
He even suggested that religious involvement often correlates with better mental and physical health, higher happiness, and lower rates of depression and anxiety.
At the same time, he anticipated that modernization and secularization might reduce religion’s influence over time as societies increasingly rely on science and rational thought.
Education
Durkheim saw the education system as a crucial part of the wider social structure.
Alongside the family, religion, and law, schools act as a secondary agent of socialisation, shaping children’s behavior and values beyond the home.
He argued that schools play two key roles:
-
Transmitting cultural values – Education passes on the shared values that hold society together, such as achievement, competition, individualism, morality, social solidarity, and equality of opportunity. By teaching these norms and values, schools help maintain the collective conscience and prepare children to be responsible members of society.
-
Preparing for adult roles – Schools train young people for the specialised division of labour found in modern, industrial societies. By providing skills and knowledge, education equips individuals to take on diverse jobs and ensures that the economy has the workforce it needs.
Durkheim described schools as “socialisation agencies” that teach children how to cooperate with others, respect rules, and balance personal ambitions with the needs of the wider community.
He believed that moral education was especially important, since social order depends on a commitment to common values and the willingness to put group interests above individual desires.
As an example, Durkheim pointed to the United States, where a shared educational system helps unify a very diverse population by giving students a common set of norms, values, and a sense of belonging to the nation.
Criticisms
Although Durkheim’s work laid the foundations of sociology, his theories have also been widely debated and criticized. Some of the main criticisms include:
-
Too deterministic: Critics argue that Durkheim placed too much emphasis on society controlling individuals through social facts. This makes people seem like passive rule-followers, leaving little room for personal choice or creativity.
-
Vagueness of anomie: Durkheim described anomie as a breakdown of norms, but he was less clear on exactly how it develops or how it could be measured in real societies. Some sociologists feel this makes the concept too vague to use consistently.
-
Crime and morality: While Durkheim argued that crime can serve positive social functions, critics point out that some crimes (such as sexual violence or child abuse) are always harmful and cannot be explained as useful to society.
-
Power and inequality: Durkheim’s focus on consensus and shared values led him to underplay the role of conflict. From a Marxist perspective, laws and norms often reflect the interests of powerful groups, not the whole community. This means that “social order” can sometimes benefit elites at the expense of others.
-
Neglect of meaning and agency: Later sociologists, especially those in the symbolic interactionist tradition, argue that Durkheim overlooked the importance of the meanings individuals give to their actions. By focusing on structures, he ignored how people actively interpret and shape their social world.
Applications and Legacy
Durkheim helped establish sociology as a distinct academic discipline.
He showed that social life could be studied scientifically by focusing on social facts rather than individual psychology.
In doing so, he distinguished sociology from philosophy, psychology, and economics.
Durkheim believed that what makes societies unique are their collective experiences — the shared beliefs, practices, and values that shape people’s behavior.
These collective forces, he argued, have real power over individuals.
This structuralist perspective influenced later sociologists and helped shape the functionalist tradition.
His work also opened debates that continue today, such as:
-
How much influence do social structures have over individuals?
-
What happens when norms and values break down?
-
How do societies maintain order in the face of diversity and change?
Durkheim’s ideas remain central to sociology.
His concepts of social facts, solidarity, anomie, and collective conscience still help students and researchers understand how societies hold together — and what happens when they don’t.
References
Adams, B. N., & Sydie, R. A. (2001). Sociological theory. Sage Publications.
Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1897)
Durkheim, E. (1953). Sociology and philosophy (D. F. Pocock, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1924)
Durkheim, E. (1956). Education and sociology (S. D. Fox, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1922)
Durkheim, E. (1995). The elementary forms of religious life (K. E. Fields, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1912)
Durkheim, E. (1997). The division of labor in society (W. D. Halls, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1893)
Grabb, E. G. (1980). Marxist categories and theories of class: The case of working-class authoritarianism. Pacific Sociological Review, 23(4), 359–376.
Lukes, S. (2015). Durkheim, Émile (1858–1917). In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 699–704). Elsevier.
Marks, S. R. (1974). Durkheim’s theory of anomie. American Journal of Sociology, 80(2), 329–363.
Merton, R. K. (1934). Durkheim’s division of labor in society. American Journal of Sociology, 40(3), 319–328.
Merton, R. K. (1994). Durkheim’s division of labor in society. Sociological Forum, 9(1), 17–25.
Pope, W. (1975). Durkheim as a functionalist. Sociological Quarterly, 16(3), 361–379.
