Secondary Socialization

Functions of Secondary Socialization

Secondary socialization is the process that teaches people how to function in the wider society outside the family.

It helps individuals move from the close, emotional world of childhood into the larger, more impersonal world of school, work, and adulthood.

If primary socialization teaches us how to be members of a family, then secondary socialization teaches us how to be members of society. It gives us the skills, values, and knowledge we need to navigate school, work, institutions, and the adult world.

Functionalist sociologists such as Talcott Parsons and Émile Durkheim argued that secondary socialization is essential for social stability, social order, and preparing people for their future roles.

1. Connecting Family Life to the Wider World (Parsons)

According to Talcott Parsons, the main purpose of secondary socialization is to act as a bridge between the family and wider society (Bales & Parsons, 2014).

• In the family, children are loved and accepted no matter what.

• In wider society, people are judged by achievement, ability, and performance.

Parsons believed that school teaches children how to operate in this larger world by helping them:

• Become less dependent on family attachments.

• Learn to interact with people they do not know personally.

• Understand that relationships in society are functional: based on what people can do, not who they are.

School is the key institution that helps children move from the emotional world of the family into the achievement-based world of society (Parsons & Shils, 1951).

2. Teaching Society’s Values & Creating Social Integration (Durkheim)

Functionalist theories argue that secondary socialization teaches the shared values needed for society to work smoothly. Durkheim (1961) saw this as the school’s central moral function.

Schools build a disciplined attachment to groups beyond the family, and they teach respect for rules as legitimate rather than merely imposed. The aim is reasoned commitment to society’s norms, not blind obedience to any one authority figure.

Durkheim said schools teach:

• Achievement

• Morality

• Respect for authority

• Social solidarity (feeling connected to society)

• Discipline and cooperation

• Equality of opportunity

Schools bring together students from different backgrounds and encourage them to share common norms and values.

This helps create social integration, which means people feel they belong to the same society.

Schools also promote social control by encouraging conformity, punctuality, rule-following, and responsibility. These are all skills needed for adult working life.

This hidden learning is often called the hidden curriculum: the informal lessons a school teaches alongside its official subjects.

3. Preparing People for Specialized Roles in Society

Modern societies have a complex division of labor, meaning different jobs require different skills. Secondary socialization prepares people for these roles.

Secondary socialization prepares people for these roles in three ways:

• Teaching specialized skills needed for work.

• Giving people role-specific knowledge, like the language of science, business, or healthcare.

• Sorting and selecting students for different future jobs, a process called role allocation that uses grades, tests, and tracking.

Functionalist theorists argue that schools evaluate students’ talents and help match them with appropriate career paths. This ensures that important jobs are filled by qualified people.

4. Secondary Socialization Across the Life Course

Secondary socialization doesn’t stop after school. It continues throughout life whenever someone enters a new environment.

Examples include:

• Workplace socialization: learning how to behave in a job, understand workplace culture, and communicate professionally.

• Anticipatory socialization: preparing for future roles, like students planning for college or someone training for a profession.

• Resocialization: learning completely new norms when entering very different environments, such as the military, prison, or a new cultural setting.

• Adult socialization: adjusting to roles like marriage, parenthood, or retirement.

Secondary groups such as coworkers, classmates, and clubs can also provide social support, advice, and a sense of belonging.

Schools also serve latent, or unintended, functions:

• Providing childcare and supervision

• Helping students build social networks

• Providing opportunities for friendships and relationships

Agents of Secondary Socialization

Peer Groups and Secondary Socialization

The peer group is one of the most important agents of secondary socialization.

A peer group includes people who are usually the same age, in a similar social position, and who share similar interests.

As children grow older, peers become extremely influential, sometimes even more than family.

1. What Makes Peer Groups Important

Peer groups socialize young people in ways that are very different from the family or school.

No adult control

Peer groups are the only social group not mainly controlled by adults (Levine & Moreland, 1994; Vandell, 2000).

This means young people learn how to interact as equals, not as children being supervised.

Learning independence

Peers allow young people to:

• Make their own decisions

• Try new behaviors

• Learn to cooperate and compete

• Figure out how to solve problems on their own

Kids also learn social skills like sharing, negotiating, and friendship rules through peer play.

2. Identity Formation and Growing Independence

Peer groups play a huge role during adolescence, when teens are trying to form their own identities and gain independence from parents.

Developing independence

Teenagers begin to separate from parental authority.

Peer norms often challenge adult rules, helping teens become more self-sufficient.

First major social world outside the family

Peers become the main group where teens learn:

• New values

• New attitudes

• Social styles (fashion, music, slang)

Reference groups

Teens use peers as a reference group, meaning they compare themselves to other teens to judge how they should act or what they should believe.

Sense of belonging

Peer groups give young people:

• Emotional support

• Acceptance

• A feeling of belonging

This is very important for self-esteem.

3. Peer Pressure and Negative Socialization

Peer groups can have negative influences as well as positive ones.

Conformity

To be accepted, young people often feel pressure to match:

• The group’s clothing style

• Attitudes

• Behavior

If they don’t conform, they may be teased or excluded.

Risky or deviant behavior

Peers sometimes encourage:

• Underage drinking

• Drug use

• Bullying

• Rule-breaking

• Delinquent behavior

Theories like differential association argue that spending time with deviant peers increases the chance that a young person will break rules too. Sutherland (1947) proposed that people learn deviant behavior through close interaction with others who supply the techniques, motives, rationalizations, and attitudes favorable to rule-breaking.

Where those favorable definitions outnumber law-abiding ones, a person’s own conduct is more likely to follow.

Parenting as a Buffer Against Peer Influence

Early family socialization does not stop mattering once peers take over. Barnes, Farrell, and Cairns (1986) tested this for adolescent drinking.

The study links nameable parenting practices, not a vague good-parent judgment, to a measured outcome. However, the design is cross-sectional and relies on self-report. It shows an association, not proof that changing parenting would change a teenager’s drinking.

Example: working-class boys

Some studies show that peer pressure in school can push boys to resist teachers, avoid work, and accept failure as part of fitting in with their group.

4. How Peer Groups Are Structured

Peer groups are not always equal inside. They often form cliques and hierarchies.

Cliques

Cliques are small, tight friend groups.
They often have:

• Leaders

• Followers

• Clear rules about who is “in” or “out”

These cliques can control popularity in schools and can influence the behavior of other students.

Gender socialization

Peers strongly reinforce gender roles (Stockard, 2006).

• Boys are often pushed to act “masculine”: confident, tough, competitive.

• Girls may be pushed to act “feminine”: caring, quiet, appearance-focused.

Students who follow traditional gender roles often gain higher status.

Those who do not may face teasing or rejection.

Media and Secondary Socialization

The mass media (TV, movies, social media, news, music, the internet) is one of the most important agents of secondary socialization.

It teaches people, especially children and teenagers, about the world, about culture, and about how to behave in society. Most media messages come from people we never meet.

1. Why Media Is an Agent of Secondary Socialization

Secondary socialization comes from people and institutions outside the family. The media fits this perfectly because it:

• Reaches large audiences

• Provides impersonal information

• Influences people we never meet (actors, influencers, musicians)

Children and adults learn a lot about society through TV, movies, social media, and online content. Media shapes our opinions, expectations, and understanding of the world.

Survey research tracks how much time children and teenagers spend with different media (Rideout et al., 2005). Adolescents in particular use media to socialize themselves (Arnett, 1995).

2. What the Media Teaches Us

The media socializes us in several important ways:

• Information: Media tells us what is happening in the world and introduces us to new ideas, cultures, and viewpoints.
• Role Models: Characters on TV, celebrities, and influencers show us examples of how people behave. Children often copy what they see.
• Cultural Values: Media teaches values such as success, hard work, beauty, relationships, and what is considered “normal.”
• Advertising: Media encourages people to buy products, shaping our wants and influencing what we think we need to fit in.
• Entertainment: Media lets us “experience” things secondhand, through movies, games, and stories.

Schools and Secondary Socialization

The education system, especially schools, is one of the most important agents of secondary socialization.

It teaches children how to live, work, and behave in the wider society beyond their family.

Schools help shape values, skills, and knowledge that students need for adult life.

School is a secondary relationship because:

• Teachers are not family members.

• Relationships are formal and based on roles (teacher–student).

• Students learn how to behave in future adult roles (boss–employee, client–professional).

• Knowledge learned can be “left behind” when students leave the classroom, so schools must make learning interesting and meaningful.

1. Education as a “Bridge” Between Family and Society (Functionalism)

Functionalist sociologists such as Talcott Parsons and Émile Durkheim argue that education helps connect children to the bigger world.

Parsons said school acts as a social bridge:

• Children learn to depend less on their parents.

• They learn to deal with impersonal relationships (teachers, classmates, strangers).

• They are judged by performance and achievement, not affection.

• School teaches universal values: rules that apply to everyone, like fairness and merit.

Schools help prepare young people for adult roles, such as going to work, following rules, cooperating with others, and meeting society’s expectations.

2. Teaching Culture, Values, and Social Norms

Schools teach students how to be members of society by passing on important values.

Durkheim said schools teach values like:

• Respect for authority

• Discipline and responsibility

• Cooperation and teamwork

• Hard work and achievement

• Social solidarity (feeling part of a community)

Schools also help create a shared identity by teaching national history, language, and civic lessons. This helps integrate students from different backgrounds and makes society more united.

3. Social Control, Skills, and Role Allocation

Schools socialize students by teaching them:

• How to follow rules (e.g., punctuality, obedience)

• How to work with others

• How to respect authority

• How to behave in formal settings

These are all skills needed in adult life and the workplace.

Role allocation

Schools also “sort” students based on their abilities, helping guide them into future careers. Grades, tests, and tracking help determine which students go to which jobs.

Functionalists believe this creates a meritocratic society.

4. The Hidden Curriculum

Not everything students learn is part of the official curriculum.

The hidden curriculum includes all the informal lessons taught through the daily routine of school, such as:

• Competing with others

• Waiting your turn

• Accepting rules

• Working in groups

• Respecting authority

• Being quiet, punctual, and prepared

Functionalists see this as teaching important values. Conflict theorists see it as supporting the existing social hierarchy.

5. Conflict Theory: Education and Inequality

Conflict theorists argue that the education system is not neutral. Instead, it often reproduces inequality.

Class inequality

• Middle-class children often have more cultural capital (language, manners, knowledge) that schools reward.

• Working-class students may be judged unfairly and placed in lower tracks.

• Tracking and standardized tests can keep lower-income students in lower positions (Horn et al., 2016).

Gender inequality

• Teachers sometimes send different messages to boys and girls (Acker, 1987).

• Boys are encouraged to be competitive; girls may be encouraged to be quiet or cooperative.

• Subjects and classroom activities may reinforce traditional gender roles.

Conflict theorists argue that education benefits the powerful and prepares working-class students for lower-status jobs.

Language and Secondary Socialization

Language plays a central role in secondary socialization.

It is both the tool we use and the thing we learn when entering new institutions, jobs, or social worlds.

When people learn the language of a new environment, they are learning how to understand and behave in that setting. Sociolinguists call this language socialization (Kulick & Schieffelin, 2004).

Secondary socialization happens through impersonal relationships, such as those with teachers, coworkers, bosses, and institutions. Language is the main way these groups teach people what to do and how to act.

Language is the most important tool for secondary socialization. It helps people:

• Learn the vocabulary of new roles and professions

• Understand how institutions work

• Communicate appropriately in different settings

• Enter new social worlds

Without language, people would not be able to participate in the complex and specialized areas of society that they encounter beyond the family.

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1. Learning Role-Specific Vocabulary

In secondary socialization, people learn the specialized language they need for different roles in society.

A. Language Shapes How We See Things

Language feels “external” to us. It already exists before we enter a group.

When we learn new words or ways of speaking, they shape how we understand and categorize our experiences.

B. Professional Vocabulary

Every occupation has its own semantic field, a set of words, meanings, and phrases that help organize everyday tasks.

Examples:

• Doctors learn medical terms

• Lawyers learn legal language

• Programmers learn technical vocabulary

To perform well in a job, you must learn this specialized language.

C. Formal vs. Informal Speech

Some languages have different forms for speaking formally or informally.
Example:

• French: tu/vous

• German: du/Sie

Learning when to use the formal form is part of learning how to behave in a school, workplace, or professional setting. This teaches people how to act appropriately in different social situations.

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2. Language in Schools and Institutions

Schools are major agents of secondary socialization, and language is one of the main things they teach, both directly and indirectly.

A. Learning the Language of the Institution

Schools help students become part of a shared social world by teaching them:

• English (for immigrant students)

• Academic vocabulary

• How to speak and write in ways required in the workplace

This prepares students for adult life.

B. Hidden Curriculum

Schools also teach unspoken rules, such as:

• Speaking with correct grammar

• Using formal language with teachers

• Learning how to communicate politely

These lessons are part of the hidden curriculum.

C. Language and Social Class (Bernstein)

Sociologist Basil Bernstein (1975) described two speech codes:

• Restricted code: short, simple phrases that rely on shared, unstated context (which Bernstein linked to working-class families)
• Elaborated code: more detailed, explicit speech that spells out meaning instead of assuming it; used in schools and professional settings

Because schools mainly use the elaborated code, students who grow up using the restricted code may struggle. This shows how language can reproduce social inequality.

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3. Learning a Second Language

Learning a second language later in life is a clear example of secondary socialization.

A. Building on the First Language

People often start by translating everything from the new language back into their mother tongue.

The new language makes sense only through the old one.

B. Thinking in the New Language

Eventually, people begin to think in the new language, but this takes time.

C. Mother Tongue Feels More Natural

A second language rarely feels as automatic or emotionally natural as the first language learned in childhood.

The “mother tongue” always has a special emotional weight.

D. Language Lets Us Enter New Worlds

Language allows us to understand things that go beyond our immediate everyday life.

Through language, we can learn:

• Abstract ideas

• Scientific knowledge

• Legal systems

• Professional rules

This ability lets us enter the many “sub-worlds” of modern society.

Examples of Secondary Socialization

Gender Roles and Secondary Socialization

Gender roles are the social rules and expectations about how males and females should behave, look, and interact.

Most of this learning happens outside the family, through secondary socialization, by schools, media, peers, and workplaces.

1. Schools and Education

Schools are a major way that gender roles are taught, both formally (through lessons) and informally (through hidden messages).

A. Subjects and Curriculum

• Gendered subjects: Boys often encouraged to take math, science, or technology, while girls are encouraged toward arts, humanities, or home economics.

• Stereotypes in textbooks: Textbooks often show women as mothers, caretakers, and men as leaders or adventurers.

• Impact: These lessons affect future careers and reinforce the idea that some jobs are “for men” and others “for women.”

B. Hidden Curriculum

• Teachers may praise boys more, encourage them to speak up, and push assertive behavior.

• Girls are often taught to be quiet, obedient, and polite, discouraging assertiveness.

• Classroom setups and school activities sometimes reinforce traditional roles, for example, separating boys and girls for certain tasks or sports.

• Work experience often reflects stereotypes: boys in engineering or construction, girls in retail or childcare.

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2. Mass Media

The media (TV, movies, magazines, internet) spreads gender norms widely.

• Stereotypical portrayals: Women often shown as wives, mothers, or overly sexualized characters; men as strong, successful, and dominant.

• Underrepresentation of women: Most main characters in movies are male.

• Advertising: Women appear in domestic roles, men in work or action roles.

• Body image: Girls are encouraged to be thin, boys to be muscular.

• Magazines: Women’s magazines often focus on appearance, dieting, and pleasing men, while men’s focus on careers, success, and hobbies.

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3. Peer Groups

Peers strongly influence how children and teens learn and follow gender roles.

• Peer pressure: Teens copy what peers consider “acceptable” for their gender.

• Sanctions for nonconformity: Boys or girls who act against gender expectations may be teased or excluded.

• Play: Boys often play competitive team games, girls often play cooperative, smaller-group games.

• Hegemonic masculinity: Boys are taught to be tough, competitive, and dominant, and avoid showing gentleness or vulnerability.

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4. Workplace and Adult Socialization

Gender roles continue in the workplace and adult life.

• Job segregation: Women dominate care-related jobs, men dominate law enforcement, politics, or engineering.

• Behavior expectations: Men and women are taught how to behave “appropriately” for their gender at work.

• Work-family norms: Men’s work is rarely questioned for family balance. Women may face career limitations due to assumed childcare responsibilities.

Workplace and Secondary Socialization

When someone enters a new job or workplace, they go through an important form of secondary socialization.

This means they learn the rules, skills, and behaviors expected in that new environment. Since most adults change jobs many times, this process continues throughout life.

1. What Workplace Socialization Involves

Workplace socialization teaches people how to function in a professional setting, which is very different from the close relationships found in families.

A. Impersonal Relationships

Most relationships at work are secondary relationships.

This means they aren’t close or emotional. You interact with people like bosses, coworkers, and customers in a more formal way.

B. Agents of Socialization

Workplace learning comes from:

• Bosses

• Coworkers

• Customers/clients

These people teach you how things work in the world beyond friends and family.

C. What You Learn (Culture and Skills)

Workers learn:

• Material skills: how to use machines or tools (e.g., operating a photocopier).

• Nonmaterial culture: rules, values, and beliefs (e.g., showing up on time, how to talk to your boss, sharing a communal fridge politely).

• Role expectations: how to behave like a “proper worker,” including following schedules and workplace discipline.

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2. Entering a New Job

People often start preparing before they officially start work.

A. Anticipatory Socialization

This is when people practice or learn about a future role ahead of time.
Examples:

• Students dressing professionally for interviews

• Student nurses copying the behavior of real nurses during placements

B. Learning the Deeper Parts of the Role

It’s not enough to learn the tasks. You must also learn the attitudes and emotions expected in the role.

Example: A judge must learn to control personal feelings while making decisions.

C. Resocialization

Sometimes entering a new job requires letting go of old habits and learning completely new ways of thinking.

This is similar to resocialization, though less extreme than in total institutions (like prisons or the military).

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3. Socialization Tactics and Newcomer Outcomes

Van Maanen and Schein (1977) described socialization as a set of tactics an organization can choose along six dimensions:

• Collective or individual: newcomers are processed together as a cohort, or alone.
• Formal or informal: a standardized programme, or ad hoc arrangements.
• Sequential or random: a fixed sequence of steps, or an unpredictable order.
• Fixed or variable: a known timetable, or an open-ended one.
• Serial or disjunctive: experienced peers model the role, or newcomers find their own way.
• Investiture or divestiture: the newcomer’s identity is affirmed, or stripped down and rebuilt.

Combining the first option in each pair produces institutionalized socialization. Combining the second produces individualized socialization. The two patterns shape how newcomers see their own role, as the study below tests directly.

Do Tactics Change How Newcomers See Their Role? (Jones, 1986)

Jones (1986) tested this framework with real newcomers.

Jones turned an influential but qualitative typology into measurable tactics tested against real outcomes. His sample was early-career professionals reporting retrospectively. That limits how far the effect sizes generalize to today’s more varied workplaces.

4. How Workplaces Socialize People

Socialization happens both formally (through planned programs) and informally (through everyday interactions).

A. Formal Socialization

This is what the company officially teaches:

• Training courses

• Policies about behavior, dress codes, and communication

• Programs that encourage loyalty or positive attitudes toward the company

B. Informal Socialization

This comes from coworkers and office culture:

• Coworkers act as a peer group, explaining the unwritten rules

• Jokes, rituals, and teasing (e.g., “pranking” new employees)

• Some informal norms may go against company rules

• Friendships with coworkers can offer support, reduce stress, and sometimes become close relationships

• Networks and cliques can influence career promotion, because people often advance through personal connections

Critical Evaluation of Secondary Socialization

Three sociological traditions read the same institutions through different lenses, and each captures something the others miss.

Functionalist, Conflict, and Interactionist Views

Each tradition explains school, peer groups, and the workplace differently:

• Functionalist view: functionalist theory holds that secondary socialization maintains society by teaching shared values and sorting people into suitable roles (Bales & Parsons, 2014; Durkheim, 1961).
• Conflict view: conflict theory argues the same process reproduces inequality, because children with more cultural capital are sorted upward (Horn et al., 2016).
• Interactionist view: symbolic interactionism holds that people actively interpret, resist, or reshape the roles on offer (Potts, 2015).

Functionalists treat the hidden curriculum’s lessons in punctuality, cooperation, and respect for authority as the point of schooling. A modern division of labor needs those skills from everyone.

Conflict theorists read role allocation differently. What functionalists call allocation by merit, they call allocation by inherited cultural advantage, and standardized testing can entrench that advantage rather than correct it.

Symbolic interactionists reject the idea that social structure simply does things to individuals. Socialization is an ongoing negotiation of meaning, so a school does not just install values or disadvantage (Potts, 2015).

The three views are not mutually exclusive. Unequal sorting is compatible with schools genuinely integrating society, and both are compatible with students actively interpreting their own socialization.

Language and the Limits of Structural Accounts

Language is the sharpest test case. Bernstein (1975) linked the elaborated code to middle-class homes and to the register schools use.

If schools reward that code, a process billed as teaching students how to succeed can look different. It can read as teaching working-class students that their own speech is a deficiency.

Interactionist scholarship complicates this reading further. Classroom meaning is negotiated turn by turn between teacher and student rather than simply imposed (Potts, 2015).

A shared blind spot remains. Functionalist and conflict readings both accept that secondary socialization, unlike primary socialization, runs through many only partly coordinated agents: peers, media, school, and workplace. That makes it more variable, contested, and open to challenge than the earlier, more determinative stage.

Contemporary Research

Two large, recent meta-analyses now test peer influence and workplace socialization with more precision than the classic studies allowed. Both update the classic pattern rather than overturn it.

Peer Influence on Adolescent Behavior

Barnes and colleagues (1986) showed that parents and peers both shape adolescent behavior. A 2026 meta-analysis asks how strong peer influence is, and which route it travels.

The synthesis is far broader than earlier meta-analyses, which covered one method and one behavior. However, most studies examined risk-taking (k = 196) rather than prosocial (k = 16) or antisocial behavior (k = 11). Short-term experiments also say little about whether peer-shaped behavior lasts.

Organizational Socialization of Newcomers

Jones (1986) found that tactics and self-efficacy shape newcomers’ role orientation. A 2025 meta-analysis asks how the wider process works across the outcomes organizations care about.

As the most comprehensive update since the field’s previous landmark review, it carries real weight. Most pooled studies are correlational, so the causal order of proactivity, acceptance, and adjustment cannot be fixed. The literature also skews toward white-collar jobs.

Read together, the modern evidence revises the classic picture without discarding it. Peers and organizations both exert a real, replicable pull.

That pull is concentrated in specific mechanisms, such as normative peer information and proactive newcomer behavior, rather than acting through mere exposure. Individual traits matter too: self-efficacy and proactive personality shape how strongly the environment can reshape a person.

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