Transference is the psychological term of projecting your feelings, based on past experiences, onto someone else in the present.
In therapy, this redirection of feelings refers to cases where the client transfers emotions based on previous interactions with figures in their lives onto the therapist (Cooper, 1987).
Key Takeaways
- Definition: Transference is the unconscious redirection of feelings from past relationships onto someone in the present, most often a therapist.
- Countertransference: The reverse also happens: therapists can unconsciously redirect their own feelings onto a client.
- Types: Transference can be positive, negative, sexualised, maternal, or paternal, depending on which past relationship is being replayed.
- A Therapeutic Tool: Handled well, transference is not just an obstacle. Freud saw it as the treatment’s most powerful lever for change.
- Beyond Therapy: The same pattern shows up in everyday relationships, such as seeing a parent’s traits in a boss or friend.
- Modern Evidence: Controlled experiments since 1990 have confirmed transference as a real, measurable feature of ordinary social cognition, not just a clinical idea.
Transference & Countertransference In Therapy
For example, a client can begin to view their therapist as a parental figure and display feelings/behaviors similar to what you would observe in a child-parent relationship.
Such processes are unconscious in nature (Ferenczi, S., Ferenczi, S., & Jones, 1990). The therapist must identify when they occur and gently use this to guide the client’s therapeutic journey.
The reverse can also happen, called countertransference. This refers to situations where the therapist transfers emotions, based on their past experiences, onto the client.
Clinicians distinguish two kinds. Subjective countertransference springs from the therapist’s own unresolved issues; objective countertransference is a reaction most therapists would have to the client’s actual behavior. Only the objective kind counts as real information.
This can be highly disruptive to the client’s progress and should be addressed promptly by the therapist to avoid further escalations (Loewald, 1986).
Transference forms part of the psychoanalytic school of thought developed by Sigmund Freud in the 1890s (Makari, 1992).
In his writings, he discussed several different forms it can manifest in, with this theory still being discussed and researched today.
Transference Outside of Therapy
Transference is not exclusive to therapy. It can also manifest in our day-to-day relationships.
An example can be observed in friendships, where one begins to identify motherly behavioral patterns, either positive or negative, in a friend.
Throughout interactions with their friend, they can unconsciously be reminded of their own maternal experiences resulting in them transferring emotions based on that previous relationship onto their friend now.
Such projections can be a catalyst for rifts and unhealthy attachments in the friendship if the transference remains unidentified and unaddressed.
What Is Freud’s Theory Of Transference?
For Freud, transference begins at birth with one’s mother figure and the relationship between mother-child.
This connection has a central role, as she is the first person one has ever made contact with. He argues that while young, we can not differentiate between “mother” and us, so we merge the two identities together.
As we grow older and begin to understand the world, we develop self-awareness and start to differentiate the “mother” as separate from us. Melanie Klein pushed the origins earlier still.
She argued that transference draws on the very first object relations of infancy, the primitive love, hatred, and fantasy first directed at the mother’s body (Klein, 1952).
How Does Freud’s Theory of Transference Relate to Psychoanalysis?
Freud’s theory of transference is central to psychoanalysis. It describes the projection of past emotions, either positive or negative, onto someone in the present (Freud, 1912).
During psychoanalysis, a patient’s transference to the therapist takes on a similar form to their maternal relationship. They regress back to their fetal experience of traversing the world alone and being unable to differentiate themselves from the “other, or in this case, the therapist.
This is termed “narcissistic transference.” Through the therapeutic journey, they develop “object transference,” where they begin to recognize the therapist as an “other” and a separate identity (River, 2018).
Freud argues that transference is a necessary component of psychoanalysis. With therapeutic guidance, a patient can begin to bring past experiences and memories from their unconscious to the conscious level.
Through discussions, they can recognize and understand what transpires when they transfer, ultimately breaking unconscious, repetitive transference cycles (Freud, 1914).
Resistance and denial are not uncommon. Many patients can be reluctant to admit any ill emotions towards previous figures in their lives but continue to transfer such ill emotions onto the therapist.
Caution is paramount, as overtly mentioning that their negative display of emotions is due to transference in relation to ”x” event may lead to a therapeutic relationship collapse (Freud, 1953).
How Do You Identify Transference In Therapy?
Signs of Transference in Session
Transference is identified through practice, regular supervision, and a strong bond with the client. This takes time. It often takes several sessions to appear, so good rapport matters (Silberschatz, Fretter & Curtis, 1986).
The therapist looks for the source of the client’s reaction. They judge whether the emotion fits the session, such as sadness while discussing trauma, or feels disproportionate.
A mismatch is the clue. If the reaction does not match the moment, the client may be reverting to an old bond, unconsciously transferring past emotions.
This mirrors the four-step process clinicians call working through. The therapist identifies the disproportionate reaction, reassures the client it belongs to an earlier relationship, explores its origin together, and helps integrate what they discover.
A Worked Example
Consider a therapist explaining something in a tone that reminds the client of their father, with whom they had a difficult relationship.
The client becomes abrupt and aggravated, a reaction that does not match the present moment.
Noticing this, the therapist can help uncover the true source — in this case, a strained paternal relationship — through further discussion.
This is a proportionate check, not a diagnosis. The therapist does not assume every strong reaction is transference. They look for a mismatch between the client’s reaction and what the moment actually calls for.
Timing matters too. A premature comment risks the alliance, so the therapist waits until the client is ready to hear it. Rushed or clumsy interpretations can do more harm than good.
Types Of Transference
The three main types of transference typically discussed are positive, negative, and erotic or sexual transference (Freud, 1958; Klein, 1952).
It is also possible to have maternal or paternal transference. All of these types can also manifest as countertransference, where the therapist is the one transferring feelings onto the client.
Positive Transference
Positive transference is when a client redirects positive feelings, based on their past experiences, onto the therapist. For example, love, affection, idealization, attachment, etc.
Positive transference can benefit a client’s therapeutic journey. Their view of the therapist can shift. They may see them as caring, attentive, empathic, and wise. This strengthens the client-therapist bond and creates a safe environment for the client to express their emotions. It ultimately supports their therapeutic progress.
Example: A client had a warm and loving relationship with a female figure in their lives, e.g., their mother. They then transfer such feelings of care and trust onto their female therapist, enabling more open, honest, and productive sessions.
Negative Transference
Negative transference is when a client redirects negative feelings, such as fear, anger, or disappointment, from past experiences onto the therapist.
This can still help therapy. The therapist can use it as a discussion point, helping the client reflect on the reaction and work through the past experience behind it.
Consider a client with a history of parental trauma. They transfer anger, mistrust, and neglect onto their therapist, who should have offered protection but instead showed neglect and abuse.
Because of the power dynamic, the therapist now stands in as the authority figure. The client shows the same negative emotions they once held for that earlier figure.
Sexualized Transference
Sexualized transference is when a client develops romantic or sexual feelings towards their therapist, such as arousal, intimacy, or infatuation.
The therapist can use this to help the client uncover the past experiences behind these feelings. Professional boundaries must be maintained throughout (Jenks & Oka, 2021).
If therapeutic growth stalls because of a client’s sexual transference, a change in therapist may be needed.
Example: a client feels a sense of connection with their therapist that develops into romantic feelings. Because therapy explores very emotional topics, these intense feelings can easily be confused with erotic ones.
Maternal Transference
Maternal transference is when a client unconsciously views their therapist as a motherly figure, developing emotions that echo their own mother-child relationship.
Such feelings may be positive or negative, depending on the client’s real relationship with their mother. Positive versions include love, warmth, and acceptance; negative versions include mistrust, anger, and frustration.
The therapist is often idealized as the mother figure. This can help a client’s progress, especially when their past experience with their mother was positive.
This form of transference may also manifest as maternal erotic transference (MET), which can leave clients feeling shame about having such feelings (Wrye & Welles, 1989).
The therapist must proceed sensitively, gently guiding clients through these unconscious projections.
Doing so can uncover unmet needs from childhood. It may also reveal an overlap of maternal and erotic transference together.
Paternal Transference
Paternal transference is when a client unconsciously views their therapist as a fatherly figure, developing emotions that echo their own father-child relationship.
Such feelings may be positive or negative, depending on the client’s real relationship with their father. Positive versions include wisdom, guidance, and protection; negative versions include mistrust, fear, and judgment.
The therapist is often idealized as the father figure. This can offer a therapeutic benefit, especially when their past experience with their father was positive.
This form of transference may also manifest as paternal erotic transference (PET), which requires the therapist to help guide the client through these unconscious projections (Diamond, 1993).
It is important that the client feels supported, understood, and reassured that their emotions are normal.
Doing so can uncover unmet needs from childhood. It may also reveal an overlap of paternal and erotic transference together.
How to Deal With Transference
If you are a client experiencing transference during your therapy sessions, it is firstly important to highlight that it is entirely normal. Part of the reason for this concept being so well documented is that it is indeed a common phenomenon observed across countries and mental health diagnoses.
Being open with your therapist is key, as they can help gently guide you into bringing old unconscious behavioral patterns to the surface, reflecting on them, and discussing old emotional wounds.
Doing so can speed up your therapeutic progress. It can also improve not just your relationship with your therapist, but your relationships with friends, family, and loved ones too.
How to deal with transference as a therapist
When a therapist deals with client transference, Freud made several suggestions (Freud, 1914).
First, the therapist’s own actions must never feed into the client’s emotional reaction. Feelings, whether positive or negative, must not stem from the real therapeutic relationship.
Timing matters here. The therapist must clarify that the client’s emotional experience does not apply to them personally.
Next, once that baseline is set, the therapist can explain the idea of transference and where it comes from.
The patient can then enter a state of “free association.” Here, they start to recognize their own transference and notice repetitive patterns.
Finally, they work with the therapist to bring unconscious memories into conscious awareness and derive new meaning (Kris, 1990).
What Did Jung Say About Transference?
Jung had his own account. He centered it on a protected therapeutic space he called the “Temenos,” and on the unconscious projection of archetypes from a client’s past relationships.
This “Temenos” is a symbolic space that protects both client and therapist while they work with unconscious material. Boundaries matter. Neither party should become too distant or too close, in a way that violates therapeutic boundaries (Abramovitch, 2002).
Regarding the archetypes, Jung cautioned therapists to proceed with empathy and ensure adequate differentiation between the projected archetype and the actual client-therapist relationship (Jung, 2014).
Jungian analysis is a cognitively and mentally demanding task, since it involves navigating the unconscious collaboratively with the patient. The demand is real.
Jung therefore suggested that a prospective analyst should first undergo their own analysis. This helps them work through experiences still submerged in their own unconscious (Knox, 2003).
Doing so minimizes the risk of mishandling their own unconscious reactions, or negatively interacting with a client’s projections (Jung, 2013).
What is the Difference Between Jung’s and Freud’s Views on Transference?
Jung’s thoughts on transference differ in how he explains and understands this concept when compared to Freud’s.
Jung held a more equal, collaborative view of transference, focusing on the mutual relationship between client and therapist (Jung, 2013). He saw both as separate people from the start, gradually building a strong connection and a sense of “kinship libido” (Jung, 2014).
Freud instead emphasized neutrality. He saw the therapist as an empty vessel onto which the patient transfers their emotions.
At first, they are one. Client and therapist begin merged in the patient’s mind, until the patient learns to recognize the therapist as separate.
Jung’s and Freud’s difference between a collaborative vs singular idea can also be seen in how they conducted their therapy sessions.
Jung sat opposite his patients and ensured they could see each other, while Freud largely remained out of his client’s views, who were reclined on a sofa.
Critical Evaluation
Transference is one of psychoanalysis’s most influential ideas, but it is not immune to criticism. It has produced some of the sharpest debates in psychology. Here are the main objections researchers raise, and the evidence that now answers some of them.
Common Criticisms
Three concerns come up most often. Each one has a documented answer.
- Hard to Falsify: A therapist alone judges whether a reaction is genuine transference or a fair response to their own behavior.
- A Contested Origin Story: The founding case, Anna O., rests partly on later, disputed retellings, including her supposed “phantom pregnancy.”
- Risk of Harm: Erotic transference or a premature interpretation can damage the client or the alliance, which is why personal therapy and supervision are treated as requirements.
- Hard to Isolate: Even where transference is measurable, singling out its interpretation as the specific ingredient of cure, apart from a good general alliance, remains difficult.
The last four decades have partly answered the falsifiability charge. Core parts of the concept can now be tested experimentally, not just interpreted from the couch.
Contemporary Research
The clearest test comes from a five-study paper by Przybylinski and Andersen (2015).
Aim: To test whether picturing someone who resembles a significant other also activates the worldview, values, and beliefs shared with that person.
Method: Five experiments using the established transference paradigm. Participants’ shared worldviews were assessed in advance, then they read about a new person who subtly resembled their own significant other.
Results: When the new person resembled their significant other, participants recognized shared-worldview words faster, expected a more meaningful interaction, and steered conversation toward that shared worldview.
Conclusion: Transference does not just carry over feelings; it restores a familiar, shared way of making sense of the world.
A separate set of meta-analyses examined the therapist’s side. Hayes, Gelso, Goldberg, and Kivlighan (2018) found that unmanaged countertransference reactions relate to worse outcomes, while successfully managing them predicts better ones. This gives Freud’s original advice, that analysts must master their own reactions, solid empirical backing.
The pattern is consistent. Taken together, the evidence shows that transference itself is real and measurable. The strongest clinical claims, that interpreting it is the active ingredient of cure, remain harder to prove.
Frequently Asked Questions
Are Displacement And Transference The Same Thing?
Displacement and transference, while both sharing an underlying emotional cause based on life experiences, are not the same thing.
Transference is the redirected projection of past feelings onto someone new today who does not share them.
Displacement is a self-defense mechanism where someone redirects their negative outbursts onto someone (usually a weaker target) because they are unable to do so for the true person causing them (Neubauer, 1994).
An example of displacement is being angry at your parents, being unable to direct that anger toward them, and taking it out on your younger sibling instead.
Is Transference Always Unconscious?
Transference, by definition, is unconscious in nature, with the person unknowingly projecting their feelings.
However, during therapy, where transference has been identified by the therapist and was brought forth as an agreed discussion point, the argument can be made that the client is developing a certain level of awareness around their emotional projection.
Consequently, transference can begin to move from the unconscious to the conscious, with the client beginning to recognize when they are engaging in it.
Thus, while transference begins in the realm of unconsciousness, it can become part of our conscious awareness.
What’s The Difference Between Transference And Projection?
Transference and projection share the same underlying principle of assigning feelings to someone who does not reflect them back.
However, while with transference, you are redirecting emotions from past experiences onto someone else, in projection, you direct emotions and translate behaviors onto the person you are having these feelings for (Grant, J., & Crawley, 2002).
For example, you may develop romantic feelings for someone; by projecting, you begin to identify what you believe are signs that they also share those romantic feelings when in reality, they do not.
Is Transference Bad in Therapy?
Transference is an entirely normal occurrence that many clients experience and should not be considered inherently bad in therapy.
Clients should feel comfortable discussing such topics and emotional expressions with their therapist, who, in turn, should respond with gentleness and kindness.
Working with a client’s transference can overall help uncover any of their unconscious projections that can then aid the therapeutic journey progression.
However, if the client is not ready for such discussions to happen, rifts in the therapeutic relationship can appear, which prevent overall well-being progression.
In such cases, thus, it can be argued that transference can have a negative effect on a client’s therapy sessions.
How can Transference Help a Client’s Progress?
Transference can be beneficial for a client’s progress in therapy as it provides an opportunity to explore and work through unresolved issues from previous relationships.
By re-experiencing and understanding these feelings within the therapeutic relationship, clients can gain insights into their emotional patterns, develop healthier ways of relating, and ultimately envision positive changes in their lives.
Transference enables the client to better understand and address their past, leading to personal growth and improved psychological well-being.
References
Abramovitch, H. (2002). Temenos regained: Reflections on the absence of the analyst. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 47(4), 583-598.
Cooper, A. M. (1987). Changes in psychoanalytic ideas: Transference interpretation. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 35(1), 77-98.
Diamond, D. (1993). The paternal transference: A bridge to the erotic oedipal transference. Psychoanalytic inquiry, 13(2), 206-225.
Ferenczi, S., Ferenczi, S., & Jones, E. (1990). Introjection and transference. Essential papers on transference, 15-27.
Freud, S. (1912). The dynamics of transference. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 12, 97–108.
Freud, S. (1914) Remembering, Repeating and Working-Through (Further Recommendations on the Technique of Psycho-Analysis II). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud 12:145-156
Freud, S. (1953). Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria (1905 [1901]). In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume VII (1901-1905): A Case of Hysteria, Three Essays on Sexuality and Other Works (pp. 1-122).
Freud, S. (1958). The dynamics of transference. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (1911-1913): The Case of Schreber, Papers on Technique and Other Works (pp. 97-108).
Grant, J., & Crawley, J. (2002). Transference and projection: Mirrors to the self. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Hayes, J. A., Gelso, C. J., Goldberg, S., & Kivlighan, D. M. (2018). Countertransference management and effective psychotherapy: Meta-analytic findings. Psychotherapy, 55(4), 496–507.
Jenks, D. B., & Oka, M. (2021). Breaking Hearts: Ethically Handling Transference and Countertransference in Therapy. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 49(5), 443-460.
Jung, C. G. (2013). The psychology of the transference. Routledge.
Jung, C. G. (2014). The archetypes and the collective unconscious. Routledge.
Klein, M. (1952). The origins of transference. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 33, 433-438.
Knox, J. (2003). Archetype, attachment, analysis: Jungian psychology and the emergent mind. Routledge.
Kris, A. O. (1990). The analyst’s stance and the method of free association. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 45(1), 25-41.
Loewald, H. W. (1986). Transference-countertransference. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 34(2), 275-287.
Makari, G. J. (1992). A history of Freud’s first concept of transference. International review of psycho-analysis, 19, 415-432.
Neubauer, P. B. (1994). The role of displacement in psychoanalysis. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 49(1), 107-119.
Przybylinski, E., & Andersen, S. M. (2015). Systems of meaning and transference: Implicit significant-other activation evokes shared reality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(4), 636–661.
River, J. (2018, September 2018). What is Freudian Transference and why does it matter? Medium.
Silberschatz, G., Fretter, P. B., & Curtis, J. T. (1986). How do interpretations influence the process of psychotherapy?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(5), 646.
Wrye, H. K., & Welles, J. K. (1989). The maternal erotic transference. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 70, 673-684.
