Xenophobia refers to an extreme fear, hatred, or prejudice toward strangers or people perceived as foreign or different from one’s own community or culture. In practice, it involves hostility and a clear “us versus them” mentality directed at those considered members of an “outgroup.”
The term itself comes from the Greek words xenos (meaning “stranger”) and phobos (“fear”), literally translating to “fear of strangers.”
However, xenophobia in everyday usage goes beyond simple fear – it encompasses broad discriminatory attitudes, negative stereotypes, and even hostile behaviors toward immigrants, foreigners, or others viewed as outsiders to one’s social group.
Xenophobia is a serious social issue because this mindset separates people into insiders and outsiders, fueling mistrust and conflict.
It can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and in extreme cases even violence against targeted groups.
Those who hold xenophobic beliefs may feel uncomfortable around people from different backgrounds, refuse to associate or befriend them, and may believe their own group is superior.
On the other side, individuals who become targets of xenophobia can feel excluded, unsafe, or humiliated in the societies they live in.
Left unaddressed, xenophobia can harm both individuals and society as a whole – undermining social cohesion and contributing to injustices.
What causes xenophobia?
Xenophobic attitudes do not arise in a vacuum. Psychologists and sociologists point to a combination of evolutionary, personal, and environmental factors that contribute to xenophobia:
Evolutionary Roots
In early human history, being vigilant or fearful of those from outside one’s tribe could serve to protect the community from potential threats.
Humans also have a basic need to belong to a group – a fundamental motivation to form close social bonds and identify with an “ingroup” (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
In modern times, this can unfortunately manifest as an instinctual bias: people may feel more comfortable around those who look, speak, or act like themselves, and more suspicious of those who do not.
The classic psychology “strange situation” experiments even show that infants often exhibit anxiety or distress when left with a stranger versus someone familiar, indicating how early a fear of “outsiders” can emerge.
Personality Traits
Internal factors such as genetics or stable traits play a role in how tolerant or intolerant someone is of different people.
For example, a study by Kocaturk and Bozdag (2020) found that people who scored high on Agreeableness – a trait linked with compassion and kindness – tended to have lower xenophobic attitudes.
In contrast, those with higher levels of certain negative personality features, like narcissism and psychopathy (traits associated with lack of empathy and aggressive self-centeredness), showed higher xenophobic attitudes.
This suggests that some individuals are more dispositionally prone to distrust or dislike outgroups, while others are more naturally open-minded.
Learned Attitudes and Environment
Much xenophobia is learned through social environment and upbringing such as family beliefs, peer influence, education, and intergroup exposure.
Children who grow up hearing family members express xenophobic or racist views may internalize those prejudices as normal.
Also, if someone is raised in a homogenous community with little contact with people of different races, cultures, or languages, they might develop stereotypes or discomfort about outsiders simply due to unfamiliarity.
This absence of direct experience can increase ignorance and intolerance. In contrast, positive contact with diverse groups from a young age can reduce fear and humanize those who are different.
Education also plays a role – teaching about other cultures and critical thinking skills can counteract ignorance. On the other hand, biased or propagandistic media can reinforce negative stereotypes.
Social and Economic Factors
Xenophobia often intensifies during times of social tension, economic hardship, or insecurity. When people feel threatened – whether physically, economically, or culturally – they may scapegoat outsiders as the cause of their problems.
Political propaganda can exploit these fears: for instance, populist leaders sometimes deliberately weaponize xenophobia to rally support, blaming immigrants or minority groups for crime, unemployment, or cultural change.
Social media has made it easier than ever for individuals with xenophobic sentiments to congregate and reinforce each other’s views.
One study found that exposure to xenophobic content on social networks helped harden people’s attitudes and could make their views more extreme (Bursztyn et al., 2019).
Even individuals who were previously tolerant might, through constant online exposure to fear-mongering or hateful content, start to adopt similar intolerant views.
It’s important to note that none of these factors destines someone to become xenophobic. Instead, they create tendencies or pressures that, combined, can lead to the development of xenophobic attitudes if not checked by opposing influences like positive intergroup experiences or education.
Types of xenophobia
Researchers and sociologists generally identify two main forms of xenophobia, based on what triggers the prejudice:
Cultural Xenophobia
This form involves rejection of the objects, traditions, or symbols that are associated with another group or culture.
Individuals with culturally xenophobic views feel threatened by cultural differences, openly disparage or mock things like foreign languages, styles of dress, music, cuisine, or other customs that originate from cultures other than their own.
For example, a culturally xenophobic person might make negative remarks about someone’s traditional clothing or become irritated hearing people speak a different language nearby.
Underlying this behavior is often the belief that one’s own culture and norms are superior to others.
Immigrant Xenophobia
This type is directed specifically toward people rather than cultural objects, often targeting immigrants or those perceived as “not fitting in” to the native society.
Someone exhibiting immigrant xenophobia might harass or exclude individuals because of their national origin, ethnicity, or religion, believing these newcomers threaten the social fabric.
They may avoid neighborhoods or places frequented by immigrant communities, refuse to hire or befriend people who look racially or ethnically different, or insist that those from other countries can never truly belong.
Immigrant xenophobia rests on seeing the outgroup people themselves as the source of conflict or threat.
Those with these attitudes typically consider members of their own nationality or social group as inherently superior and view outsiders as dangerous, inferior, or unworthy of the same rights.
This can manifest in hostile rhetoric about immigrants “stealing jobs” or not assimilating, and in extreme cases can fuel support for harsh anti-immigrant policies.
Is Xenophobia a Mental Disorder?
Although it includes the suffix “-phobia,” xenophobia is not classified as a mental disorder in the DSM-5 and has no official diagnostic criteria.
Some researchers, like Poussaint (2002), have argued that extreme xenophobic beliefs could reflect a form of delusional disorder, suggesting a “prejudice type” for cases involving pathological hatred or violence.
This view highlights the irrationality of severe bigotry and aims to prevent normalization.
However, most experts view xenophobia as a social or learned problem, not a psychiatric condition.
Bell (2004) cautioned against medicalizing racism or xenophobia, as it could excuse harmful behavior and ignore cultural influences.
While xenophobia can involve fear or anxiety, it lacks the intense, generalized symptoms of clinical phobias like agoraphobia.
A true phobia of strangers would cause distress around all unfamiliar people, regardless of background.
In contrast, xenophobia typically targets specific outgroups, rooted more in belief systems than uncontrollable fear. As such, psychology generally understands it as a prejudice, not a mental illness.
Impact of Xenophobia
Xenophobia can have far-reaching consequences for both societies and individuals. Some of the documented impacts of widespread xenophobic attitudes include:
- Social Conflict and Violence: History shows that extreme xenophobia can fuel conflicts such as war, ethnic violence, or even genocide. When one group’s hatred of another is inflamed, it can lead to organized violence against the scapegoated group. Hostility toward “outsiders” has been at the root of many conflicts and atrocities.
- Discrimination and Inequality: Xenophobia often translates into active discrimination in daily life – from hiring biases and housing discrimination to exclusion from community life. Outgroup members may face fewer job opportunities, restricted access to services, or unequal treatment under the law due to prejudiced attitudes. Over time, this creates social and economic disparities where the targeted group struggles to advance.
- Hate Crimes: Intense xenophobic sentiments can lead to hate crimes – verbal or physical attacks directed at people simply because of their ethnicity, nationality, or religion. Examples include assaults, vandalism of places of worship, or harassment of individuals wearing cultural attire. These incidents instill fear in entire communities.
- Spread of Misinformation: Xenophobia often thrives on false stereotypes and rumors about the target group. Prejudiced individuals may spread false information about certain cultures or immigrants (for example, that they are inherently dangerous or unclean), which further fuels fear and misunderstanding in society.
- Political and Cultural Backlash: Xenophobic attitudes can influence politics, leading to controversial policies such as travel bans, strict immigration quotas, or the rise of nationalist movements. Culturally, it can create a climate of isolationism, where societies become less open and diverse.
Personal impact of xenophobia
People who are subject to xenophobic discrimination or harassment can feel unsafe and unwelcome in their own community. Over time, this takes a toll on mental and emotional well-being.
Victims of xenophobia may suffer from chronic stress, anxiety, or depression as a result of feeling constantly targeted or marginalized.
They might start to withdraw from social life out of fear, leading to isolation. In severe cases, these experiences can even contribute to self-harm or suicidal thoughts.
For example, a study of Chinese American older adults found that those who had experienced xenophobic discrimination showed higher levels of depression, worse self-reported health, greater risk of social isolation, and were more likely to have suicidal ideation (Dong, Chen, & Simon, 2014).
Paradoxically, even individuals who hold xenophobic views can face negative consequences. They may damage their relationships with others by expressing hateful opinions – for instance, they could lose friendships if people in their lives do not share or tolerate those views.
In workplace or public settings, overt xenophobic behavior can result in job loss or legal repercussions if it violates anti-discrimination laws or community standards.
Additionally, immersing oneself in fear and hatred of others can reinforce a mindset of paranoia and anger, which is psychologically unhealthy and can lead to that person’s own social isolation or dissatisfaction.
Examples of xenophobic impacts
Xenophobic attitudes also affect society on a larger scale when they surge in response to current events. For instance, major geopolitical or economic events have been followed by spikes in xenophobia:
- After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S., there was a sharp rise in anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant sentiment in many countries. Many Muslim-Americans and those perceived as Middle Eastern faced harassment and suspicion due to xenophobic generalizations linking them with terrorism.
- In the UK, the 2016 Brexit referendum (when Britain voted to leave the European Union) was accompanied by a significant increase in xenophobic incidents. Official statistics in England and Wales documented a 41% rise in racially or religiously aggravated offenses in June 2016 (the month of the referendum) compared to June 2015 (Corcoran, Lader, & Smith, 2016).
- The COVID-19 pandemic sparked a wave of xenophobia against people of Asian descent. Fear and misinformation about the virus’s origins led to Asians and Asian Americans being unfairly blamed or stigmatized. In the United States, more than 1,700 anti-Asian hate incidents were reported in just the first few months of the pandemic (March–May 2020) as COVID-19 spread (Le, Cha, Han, & Tseng, 2020). By late 2021, community organizations had documented over 10,000 incidents targeting Asian Americans, illustrating how quickly xenophobic sentiment can spread alongside a global crisis.
Combating Xenophobia: Reducing Prejudice
People who recognize their own xenophobic attitudes—or societies aiming to reduce prejudice—can turn to several proven strategies:
1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
CBT helps individuals challenge unhelpful thoughts and core beliefs. For those with xenophobic fears or assumptions, therapy can uncover the roots of their discomfort and replace harmful stereotypes with more realistic views.
CBT is especially useful when fear is a key factor, using gradual exposure and thought restructuring to reduce anxiety around those perceived as “different.”
2. Anger Management
When xenophobia shows up as hostility or aggression, anger management techniques can help.
These programs teach emotional regulation and coping strategies, reducing the risk of harmful outbursts. Managing anger also creates space for empathy and reflection.
3. Exposure and Broadening Experiences
Direct contact with people or cultures previously feared often reduces prejudice. Whether through travel, diverse community events, or cultural engagement, real-life interactions humanize outgroups and replace stereotypes with understanding.
This mirrors exposure therapy—over time, the unfamiliar becomes less threatening.
4. Education and Perspective-Taking
Learning about other cultures, religions, and histories can correct misinformation and foster respect. Books, films, and workshops offer insight, but personal dialogue is even more powerful.
Structured conversations and intergroup activities encourage individuals to see shared humanity and shift focus from differences to similarities.
5. Finding Common Ground
Discovering shared interests—sports, music, parenting—helps dissolve “us vs. them” thinking. Small connections emphasize commonality and make it harder to dehumanize others. Over time, this fosters a more inclusive mindset.
Changing xenophobic attitudes takes time, especially when tied to long-held beliefs or identity.
But with consistent effort, empathy, and open-mindedness, individuals can unlearn prejudice and embrace tolerance.
Many who once held exclusionary views have transformed through exposure, education, and human connection.
Coping With Xenophobia: Support for Individuals and Communities
Reducing xenophobia is vital, but so is supporting those affected by it. Here’s how individuals and society can respond:
1. Mental Health Support for Victims
Experiencing xenophobia can be deeply distressing. Therapy or counseling can help individuals process trauma, anxiety, or depression caused by exclusion or harassment.
While medication may be prescribed for severe symptoms, support groups and community resources are often the first line of care.
Many organizations offer safe spaces, legal help, and emotional support, helping people feel less alone and more empowered.
2. Bystander Intervention and Allyship
Speaking up against xenophobic comments or behaviors—when safe to do so—can challenge harmful norms.
Calmly correcting misinformation or showing disapproval can make perpetrators think twice.
Being an ally also means offering support to victims, whether by standing with them, checking in, or reporting incidents. In schools and workplaces, flagging discrimination helps ensure accountability.
3. Education and Open Dialogue
Early education is key. Parents and educators can teach respect for cultural differences, celebrate diversity, and address prejudice as it arises.
Honest conversations about slurs, stereotypes, and inclusivity empower young people to recognize and challenge xenophobia.
Multicultural curricula foster a sense of belonging and normalize difference rather than fear it.
4. Community and Policy Action
Broader efforts also matter. Public campaigns can highlight immigrant contributions and counter fear-based narratives.
Community events, cultural festivals, and exchange programs promote connection and reduce ignorance.
Enforcing anti-discrimination laws and hate crime statutes is essential for accountability. Citizens can support advocacy groups, share personal stories to raise awareness, and challenge xenophobic rhetoric in media and politics through fact-checking and public pressure.
Together, these actions help create a more inclusive society—one where fear is replaced by understanding, and difference is met with respect rather than hostility.
Further Information
References
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.
Bell, C. (2004). Racism: A mental illness?. Psychiatric Services, 55(12), 1343-1343.
Bursztyn, L., Egorov, G., Enikolopov, R., & Petrova, M. (2019). Social media and xenophobia: evidence from Russia (No. w26567). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Corcoran, H., Lader, D., & Smith, K. (2016). Hate Crime, England and Wales . Statistical bulletin, 5, 15.
Dong, X., Chen, R., & Simon, M. A. (2014). Experience of discrimination among US Chinese older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 69 (Suppl_2), S76-S81.
Kocaturk, M., & Bozdag, F. (2020). Xenophobia among University Students: Its Relationship with Five Factor Model and Dark Triad Personality Traits. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 6 (3), 545-554.
Le, T. K., Cha, L., Han, H. R., & Tseng, W. (2020). Anti-Asian xenophobia and Asian American COVID-19 disparities .
Poussaint, A. F. (2002). Yes: it can be a delusional symptom of psychotic disorders. The Western journal of medicine, 176 (1), 4-4.
Yakushko, O. (2009). Xenophobia: Understanding the roots and consequences of negative attitudes toward immigrants. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(1), 36–66.
