Sigmund Freud’s Theories & Contribution to Psychology

Sigmund Freud: The Father of Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental illness and a theory explaining human behavior.

Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality.

For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person’s past is hidden from consciousness and may cause problems during adulthood (neuroses).

Thus, when we explain our behavior to ourselves or others (conscious mental activity), we rarely give a true account of our motivation.

This is not because we are deliberately lying. While human beings are great deceivers of others; they are even more adept at self-deception.

Freud’s life work was dominated by his attempts to penetrate this often subtle and elaborate camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of personality.

His lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of Western society.

Words he introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal (personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.

Who is Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud, born on May 6, 1856, in what is now Příbor, Czech Republic (then part of the Austrian Empire), is hailed as the father of psychoanalysis.

He was the eldest of eight children in a Jewish family.

Freud initially wanted to become a law professional but later developed an interest in medicine. He entered the University of Vienna in 1873, graduating with an MD in 1881.

His primary interests included neurology and neuropathology. He was particularly interested in the condition of hysteria and its psychological causes.

In 1885, Freud received a grant to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist who used hypnosis to treat women suffering from what was then called “hysteria.”

This experience sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind, a theme that would recur throughout his career.

Freud’s Career and Lasting Influence

Returning to Vienna in 1886, Freud married Martha Bernays and established a private practice to treat nervous disorders.

During this time, he began developing his revolutionary theories of the mind and the psychoanalytic method.

Freud introduced several influential concepts, including the Oedipus complex, dream analysis, and the structural model of the psyche divided into the id, ego, and superego.

He published numerous works throughout his career, the most notable being The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901), and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905).

Despite controversy and opposition, Freud continued to develop his theories and expand the field of psychoanalysis.

He was deeply affected by the outbreak of World War I and later by the rise of the Nazis in Germany.

In 1938, due to the Nazi threat, he emigrated to London with his wife and youngest daughter.

Freud died in London on September 23, 1939, but his influence on psychology, literature, and culture remains profound and pervasive.

He radically changed our understanding of the human mind, emphasizing the power of unconscious processes and pioneering therapeutic techniques that continue to be used today.

Sigmund Freud’s Theories & Contributions

1. Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud is best known for developing psychoanalysis, a therapeutic technique for treating mental health disorders by exploring unconscious thoughts and feelings.

2. Unconscious Mind: Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, describing the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

   

3. Personality: Freud proposed a tripartite model of the human mind, composed of the id, ego, and superego. The id represents primal desires, the ego balances the id and reality, and the superego represents societal norms and morals.

   
   The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been conceptualized as three essential parts of the human personality.

4. Psychosexual Development: Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development suggests that early childhood experiences and stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) shape our adult personality and behavior.

   His theory of psychosexual stages of development is predicated by the concept that childhood experiences create the adult personality and that problems in early life would come back to haunt the individual as a mental illness.

5. Dream Analysis: Freud believed dreams were a window into the unconscious mind and developed methods for analyzing dream content for repressed thoughts and desires.

   Dreams represent unfulfilled wishes from the id, trying to break through to the conscious. But because these desires are often unacceptable, they are disguised or censored using such defenses as symbolism.

   Freud believed that by undoing the dreamwork, the analyst could study the manifest content (what they dreamt) and interpret the latent content ( what it meant) by understanding the symbols.

6. Defense Mechanisms: Freud proposed several defense mechanisms, like repression and projection, which the ego employs to handle the tension and conflicts among the id, superego, and the demands of reality.

Sigmund Freud’s Patients

Sigmund Freud’s clinical work with several patients led to major breakthroughs in psychoanalysis and a deeper understanding of the human mind. Here are summaries of some of his most notable cases:

1. Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim): Known as the ‘birth of psychoanalysis,’ Anna O. was a patient of Freud’s colleague Josef Breuer. However, her case heavily influenced Freud’s thinking.

   She suffered from various symptoms, including hallucinations and paralysis, which Freud interpreted as signs of hysteria caused by repressed traumatic memories.
   
   The “talking cure” method with Anna O. would later evolve into Freudian psychoanalysis.

2. Dora (Ida Bauer): Dora, a pseudonym Freud used, was a teenager suffering from what he diagnosed as hysteria. Her symptoms included aphonia (loss of voice) and a cough.

   Freud suggested her issues were due to suppressed sexual desires, particularly those resulting from a complex series of relationships in her family.
   
   The Dora case is famous for the subject’s abrupt termination of therapy, and for the criticisms Freud received regarding his handling of the case.

3. Little Hans (Herbert Graf): Little Hans, a five-year-old boy, feared horses. Freud never met Hans but used information from the boy’s father to diagnose him.

   He proposed that Little Hans’ horse phobia was symbolic of a deeper fear related to the Oedipus Complex – unconscious feelings of affection for his mother and rivalry with his father.
   
   The case of Little Hans is often used as an example of Freud’s theory of the Oedipal Complex in children.

4. Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer): Rat Man came to Freud suffering from obsessive thoughts and fears related to rats, a condition known as obsessional neurosis.

   Freud connected his symptoms to suppressed guilt and repressed sexual desires.
   
   The treatment of Rat Man further expanded Freud’s work on understanding the role of internal conflicts and unconscious processes in mental health disorders.

5. Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff): Wolf Man was a wealthy Russian aristocrat who came to Freud with various symptoms, including a recurring dream about wolves.

   Freud’s analysis, focusing on childhood memories and dreams, led him to identify the presence of repressed memories and the influence of the Oedipus Complex.
   
   Wolf Man’s treatment is often considered one of Freud’s most significant and controversial cases.

In the highly repressive “Victorian” society in which Freud lived and worked, women, in particular, were forced to repress their sexual needs. In many cases, the result was some form of neurotic illness.

Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients.

This was not primarily an investigation of sexual experiences as such.

Far more important were the patient’s wishes and desires, their experience of love, hate, shame, guilt, and fear – and how they handled these powerful emotions.

Freud’s Followers

Freud attracted many followers, who formed a famous group in 1902 called the “Psychological Wednesday Society.”

The group met every Wednesday in Freud’s waiting room.

As the organization grew, Freud established an inner circle of devoted followers, the so-called “Committee” (including Sàndor Ferenczi, and Hanns Sachs (standing) Otto Rank, Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, and Ernest Jones).

At the beginning of 1908, the committee had 22 members and was renamed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.

Neo-Freudians

The term neo-Freudians refers to psychologists who were initially followers of Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) but later developed their own theories, often modifying or challenging Freud’s ideas.

Here are summaries of some of the most notable neo-Freudians:

1. Carl Jung: Jung (1875 – 1961) was a close associate of Freud but split due to theoretical disagreements.

   He developed the concept of analytical psychology, emphasizing the collective unconscious, which houses universal symbols or archetypes shared by all human beings.

   He also introduced the idea of introversion and extraversion.

2. Alfred Adler: Adler (1870 – 1937) was another early follower of Freud who broke away due to differing views.

   He developed the school of individual psychology, highlighting the role of feelings of inferiority and the striving for superiority or success in shaping human behavior.

   He also emphasized the importance of social context and community.

3. Otto Rank: Rank (1884 – 1939) was an early collaborator with Freud and played a significant role in the development of psychoanalysis.

   
   He proposed the “trauma of birth” as a critical event influencing the psyche.

   Later, he shifted focus to the relationship between therapist and client, influencing the development of humanistic therapies.

4. Karen Horney: Horney (1885 – 1952) challenged Freud’s views on women, arguing against the concept of “penis envy.”

   She suggested that social and cultural factors significantly influence personality development and mental health.

   Her concept of ‘basic anxiety’ centered on feelings of helplessness and insecurity in childhood, shaping adult behavior.

5. Harry Stack Sullivan: Sullivan (1892 – 1949) developed interpersonal psychoanalysis, emphasizing the role of interpersonal relationships and social experiences in personality development and mental disorders.

   
   He proposed the concept of the “self-system” formed through experiences of approval and disapproval during childhood.

6. Melanie Klein: Klein (1882 – 1960), a prominent psychoanalyst, is considered a neo-Freudian due to her development of object relations theory, which expanded on Freud’s ideas.
   
   She emphasized the significance of early childhood experiences and the role of the mother-child relationship in psychological development.

7. Anna Freud: Freud’s youngest daughter significantly contributed to psychoanalysis, particularly in child psychology.

   
   Anna Freud (1895 – 1982) expanded on her father’s work, emphasizing the importance of ego defenses in managing conflict and preserving mental health.

8. Wilhelm Reich: Reich (1897 – 1957), once a student of Freud, diverged by focusing on bodily experiences and sexual repression, developing the theory of orgone energy.
   
   His emphasis on societal influence and body-oriented therapy made him a significant neo-Freudian figure.

9. Erich Fromm: Fromm (1900-1980) was a German-American psychoanalyst associated with the Frankfurt School, who emphasized culture’s role in developing personality.
   
   He advocated psychoanalysis as a tool for curing cultural problems and thus reducing mental illness.

10. Erik Erikson: Erikson (1902 – 1994)  extended Freud’s theory of psychosexual development by adding social and cultural aspects and proposing a lifespan development model.

    His theory of psychosocial development outlined eight stages, each marked by a specific crisis to resolve, that shape an individual’s identity and relationships.

Critical Evaluation

1. Fundamental Scientific and Methodological Criticisms

A cornerstone of the critique against Freud’s psychoanalytic theory centres on its lack of scientific verifiability and falsifiability.

Lack of Falsifiability

For a scientific hypothesis to be considered valid, it must be falsifiable (capable of being proven incorrect).

A major criticism is that many of Freud’s concepts are so vague or abstract that they cannot be empirically tested or disproven, making them non-scientific.

For instance, Freud’s structural model of personality – the id, ego, and superego – are abstract conceptions of interacting forces rather than observable physical structures.

Critics argue it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove their existence.

Similarly, the workings of the unconscious mind (a repository of feelings, urges, and repressed conflicts) cannot be observed directly, making its true meaning hidden, though Freudian theory relies on interpreting clues to the unconscious, such as dreams and slips of the tongue.

Philosophers such as Popper identified Freud and his followers as builders of “closed dogmatic philosophical systems” or pseudo-science, noting that these systems could explain virtually anything, often through post-hoc (after-the-fact) explanations, thereby protecting them from scientific refutation.

Vague Predictions and Lack of Specificity

Freud’s concepts are often criticized for their vague nature, making them inadequate for making specific predictions about behaviour.

For example, Freud’s theory of psychosexual development proposed that fixation in the anal stage (age 1–3 years) could result in an adult personality that is either unusually messy or unusually neat (anal-retentive or anal-expulsive).

The theory offers no mechanism to predict which specific trait will be expressed, weakening its explanatory power.

Reliance on Non-Empirical Methodology

The foundation of Freud’s theories rests heavily on clinical evidence and subjective interpretation, rather than controlled empirical research.

1. Case Studies: Freud developed his theories primarily through intensive, long-term case studies and in-depth interviews with a few clients.
   
   These included historical cases like Bertha Pappenheim (“Anna O.”) – whose treatment served as the basis for Studies on Hysteria – and the detailed analysis of a child known as “Little Hans”.
2. Bias in Interpretation: The case study method, while providing rich, in-depth qualitative data, is especially prone to researcher bias in interpretation.
   
   In the case of Little Hans, the information Freud analysed came primarily from the boy’s father, who was a known enthusiast of Freud’s work.
   
   Critics suggest this setup may have biased the reporting and analysis towards conclusions that fitted Freud’s pre-existing theory of the Oedipus complex.
3. Subjectivity in Observation: Freud’s psychoanalysis has been highlighted as an area where theoretical constructs are easily confused with clinical observations.
   
   The observations made were arguably only understandable and verifiable to observers (therapists) who had already subscribed to the entirety of the psychoanalytic theoretical framework.

2. Criticisms of Scope, Bias, and Determinism

Freud’s theoretical framework is also heavily criticized for its limited scope, cultural specificity, and deterministic view of human behaviour.

Limited and Biased Sample Population

Freud’s theories were largely derived from a highly restricted population: primarily upper-class Austrian women living in Vienna during the strict, puritanical era of the early 1900s.

Critics argue that his universal generalizations based on this unrepresentative sample undermine the global applicability of his theories.

For example, Freud’s view of personality development assumes a certain family structure, where the father plays the main disciplinarian role, necessary for the Oedipal conflict to progress as he described.

This raises questions about the universality of his psychosexual stages in cultures with different kinship systems (e.g., some Pacific Island societies where the maternal uncle is the disciplinarian).

Furthermore, his therapy, sometimes called “the talking cure,” is considered most suitable for cultures that already encourage the verbal discussion of personal problems, posing a practical limitation on its effectiveness elsewhere.

Gender Bias (Androcentrism)

A persistent and significant criticism is the gender bias evident in Freud’s theories, which are often described as androcentric (male-centred).

• Penis Envy: Freud argued that women have weaker superegos than men and unconsciously yearn to be men (the concept of penis envy).
• Oedipus Complex: His obsession with the Oedipus complex is viewed as intensely male-focused.

Neo-Freudian Karen Horney notably challenged these ideas, disagreeing with the notion of penis envy.

She suggested that any jealousy displayed by women was more likely rooted in the culturally based greater privileges afforded to men, making gender differences in personality cultural rather than biological.

Horney further counter-suggested that men might experience “womb envy” because they cannot give birth.

Psychic Determinism

The psychodynamic approach suggests that human behaviour is determined by unconscious drives and early traumatic childhood experiences (which are repressed).

This reliance on hidden, predetermined forces means that the individual is viewed as lacking free will and is instead subject to psychic determinism.

3. Enduring Legacy and Modern Evolution

Despite the extensive criticisms, especially regarding scientific methodology, Freud remains a hugely influential figure.

His work is widely recognized for introducing foundational concepts that steered subsequent psychological research.

Core Contributions to Psychology

1. Emphasis on the Unconscious: Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind. He made the influential point that a large portion of our mental life occurs outside conscious awareness and that unconscious processes affect our behaviour.
2. Importance of Early Childhood: Freud highlighted the enduring importance of early childhood experiences in shaping adult personality, a belief that continues to influence many subsequent developmental and personality theories.
3. Foundation for Treatment: Psychoanalysis was the first organized therapy for mental disorders. Freud popularized the technique of psychoanalysis, which provided the methodology for the psychological treatment of mental disorders and remains the root of all modern forms of therapy.
4. Specific Concepts: Concepts like defense mechanisms and repression are widely discussed and generally accepted. Indeed, projective tests like the Rorschach Inkblot Test rely on the Freudian concept of projection to assess unconscious processes.

Empirical and Theoretical Reassessment

Some critics argue that many criticisms of Freud attack his older ideas without considering his later writings. Furthermore, contemporary research has found support for some of his broader ideas:

• Neuroscience Support: Advances in neuroscience related to emotional memory pathways and unconscious cognitive and social processes have offered partial support for the concept of the unconscious, suggesting some behaviour is motivated by forgotten occurrences.
• Renaming of Concepts: Psychoanalytic concepts have often been renamed and absorbed into mainstream psychological science, sometimes without acknowledgement. Examples include:
  • “Repression” becoming “Cognitive avoidance”.
  • “Preconscious processing” becoming “Preattentive processing”.
  • The “Ego” becoming the “Central executive”.
• Evolution of Treatment (Neo-Freudians and Psychodynamic Therapy): Freud’s immediate followers, known as neo-Freudians (e.g., Adler, Jung, Erikson, Horney), maintained the focus on childhood experiences but significantly reduced the emphasis on sexual drives, shifting attention toward social and cultural influences and the role of the ego.
• Modern Psychodynamic Therapy: Classical psychoanalysis is still practiced today, but it has largely been replaced by psychodynamic therapy, which is generally briefer, more focused on relieving psychological distress, and incorporates social and interpersonal context.
  
  These modern iterations have garnered empirical support and are recognized as effective treatments for various conditions.

References

Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American psychologist, 54(7), 462.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies on hysteria. Standard Edition 2: London.

Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and therapy. John Wiley & Sons.

Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61.

Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.

Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. S.E., 4-5.

Freud, S. (1901). The psychopathology of everyday life. SE, 6. London: Hogarth.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Se, 7, 125-243.

Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.

Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.

Freud, S. (1925). Negation. Standard edition, 19, 235-239.

Freud, S. (1961). The resistances to psycho-analysis. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIX (1923-1925): The Ego and the Id and other works (pp. 211-224).

Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological review, 102(1), 4.

Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of experimental psychology, 18(6), 643.

Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of Memory, (pp. 381–403). New York: Academic Press.