You may love and enjoy spending time with your boyfriend, but his constant texting, calling, and jealous outbursts drive you to the edge of your patience. You may wonder, ‘Why is my boyfriend so clingy?’ and ‘How can I deal with his clinginess?’
A clingy boyfriend is a partner whose need for constant attention, contact, and reassurance leaves a relationship feeling suffocating rather than supportive. It’s usually a coping strategy for relationship anxiety rooted in an anxious attachment style, not a fixed personality trait.
Hannah, a teacher from Australia, shares her own experience below, illustrating the signs, the causes, and how to deal with a clingy partner.
Key Takeaways
- Core Signs: Constant contact, emotional oversensitivity, catastrophizing, jealousy, and wanting all of a partner’s time are the clearest markers of clinginess.
- Root Cause: Clinginess usually traces back to an anxious attachment style: low self-esteem, fear of abandonment, weak boundaries, and emotional dependence.
- Communication First: Naming specific behaviors clearly and calmly, without blame, works better than criticism alone.
- Boundaries Help: Clear limits on contact and phone privacy protect both partners while keeping trust and independence intact.
- Expert View: Relationship therapist Esther Perel notes that clinginess and emotional withdrawal often defend against the same underlying fear of not being truly seen.
- When to Worry: Fast escalation, punishing reactions, or attempts to isolate a partner from friends and family point toward control, not just clinginess.
- Evidence: Daily-diary and year-long studies link attachment anxiety to reassurance-seeking and lower satisfaction, but “clingy” is a popular label, not a clinical term.
Signs of a Clingy Boyfriend
Clingy means needing constant attention and being suffocating, overly dependent, and jealous. If your boyfriend displays any of this behavior, it’s a sign he’s clingy.
Clinginess can cause a massive strain on you and the relationship. Therefore, how you feel in the relationship is a sign.
Do you feel suffocated? Does receiving yet another message from him make you sigh and roll your eyes?
Do you look for excuses not to see him? Do you wish he would just stay home for once and not come out with you and your friends?
If you answered yes, chances are your boyfriend is pretty clingy. Here are some more signs of a clingy boyfriend:
1. Constant Calls and Texts
It’s nice when your boyfriend is in touch a lot, and you feel like you’re the center of his attention. But if you feel emotionally drained by the amount of time you spend texting back or being on the phone, there’s a problem.
Hannah’s partner used to message her several times a day and expect her to reply immediately. When she didn’t reply within a few minutes, he called her repeatedly and got very angry at her.
Sometimes, he’d accuse her of cheating and say, “I know you’re not picking up because you’re with someone else” (even though she was in the shower or a lecture).
If your boyfriend wants constant contact and gets angry when you don’t reply immediately, that’s a sign he’s clingy. It may also be a sign he’s controlling.
2. Excessive Emotional Sensitivity
Clinginess often stems from insecurity and low self-esteem, which also makes a person very sensitive to criticism or signs of rejection.
In Hannah’s case, her partner would sulk whenever he felt slighted by her. If he asked for her opinion on something and her feedback was anything less than “it’s perfect”, he’d get angry. If she didn’t have time for a call or, as above, she didn’t text back immediately, he felt she was rejecting him and would get upset.
She started to hold back on sharing her honest opinions and made sure she never criticized him. She felt she was always walking on eggshells.
To a clingy boyfriend, criticism or hearing that you don’t have time for a call or meeting signals rejection. That’s why he responds with strong negative emotions.
When a man is overly sensitive, it can be a sign of clinginess. That’s especially true if his sensitivity depends on how much time you spend together.
3. Catastrophizing
If he always imagines the worst-case scenario if he doesn’t hear back from you, it’s a sign of clinginess.
As we touched on above, Hannah’s partner always thought she was cheating on him when she didn’t reply. Sometimes, he’d call her sister if he hadn’t heard from her for a few hours, asking if Hannah was okay or something had happened. If he felt she was being “off” or distant, he worried that it meant she would break up with him.
Hannah became increasingly exhausted from always having to reassure him.
This way of thinking, called catastrophizing, is common in clingy people and comes from experiencing high levels of anxiety.
4. Wanting to Spend All His Time With You
Does your boyfriend want to spend excessive amounts of time with you?
Does he get upset if you want to spend time with your friends and family, or just on your own?
That’s what Hannah’s partner was like. They’d spend the whole weekend together and when she went home on Sunday evening, he’d text her immediately saying, “I miss you”. He wanted to do everything with her and hated it when she’d do things without him. Hannah’s friends begged her to stop bringing him along, but he always made her feel guilty for “choosing her friends over him”.
It’s natural to want to spend as much time as possible with someone you love. But keep some independence, and nurture your other relationships too.
If your boyfriend makes you feel bad for wanting to spend time alone or with other people, that’s a sign of clinginess.
It could also be a sign of controlling behavior (i.e., isolating you from your support network) so be careful with this one.
5. Keeping Tabs on You and Your Social Media Activity
If you feel borderline stalked by your boyfriend, the alarm bells should be ringing.
“Why did that guy like your post? I saw you commented on the picture John posted – do you fancy him? Why did you switch off read receipts on WhatsApp?”
Hannah faced these kinds of questions constantly.
If she saw friends without him, he’d text and call all night. When they weren’t together, he wanted to know exactly where she was, what she was doing, and who she was with.
That kind of constant checking-in is a definite sign of clinginess.
Phubbing and Anxious Attachment
Phones can fuel this pattern. Researchers call it phubbing, a blend of “phone” and “snubbing.” It is the feeling that a partner’s phone use is crowding out face-to-face attention.
Carnelley and colleagues (2026) followed 196 partnered adults in a 10-day diary study. Attachment anxiety changed the picture. On days when people felt phubbed, those higher in attachment anxiety reported lower self-esteem and a more depressed mood.
They also felt more resentment and curiosity about the partner’s phone. They were more likely to retaliate, too. When they did, it was to seek support and approval from others (Carnelley et al., 2026).
6. Intense Jealousy
Most people feel jealous sometimes. That’s normal. But when jealousy is unreasonable and the reaction is intense, it’s unhealthy.
Getting jealous because he spends time with other people, sees you interact with another guy, or dislikes your outfit is a good example of that.
A secure person with a healthy attachment trusts you and doesn’t try to take your freedom. A clingy boyfriend gets possessive instead.
Anger crosses a line. If he can’t control his jealousy and becomes angry or wants to punish you, that’s a red flag.
Feeling jealous is normal. Acting on it with anger isn’t. The better option is to deal with jealousy by discussing it calmly with your partner.
Can Touch Reduce Jealousy?
Touch may help when jealousy comes from insecurity.
Kim, Feeney, and Jakubiak (2018) made partnered adults feel jealous in an experiment. People were then randomly assigned to one of three conditions. Some received affectionate touch from their partner. Others wrote about a time they felt protected and supported. The rest did nothing.
Touch eased jealous feelings in people high in attachment anxiety, who also felt the most jealous overall. Recalling a secure memory did not (Kim et al., 2018).
So if his jealousy stems from insecurity, a reassuring touch from you may help in the moment. It is one experiment, so treat it as a promising tip, not a cure.
7. Moving Very Fast in a New Relationship
Clingy people often start clinging very quickly after you meet them.
When Hannah first met her soon-to-be partner, he came out with all guns blazing. After only a few dates he asked her to be his girlfriend and wanted them to be exclusive. He very quickly wanted to spend a lot of time with her, and at first, it made her feel special, and she thought it was romantic.
After a few months, it started to feel draining and suffocating. She liked a lot about him, though, so she looked past it.
“It’s not often you come across a guy who wants to be with you this much,” she said. “I thought it would be stupid to let that go.”
Moving fast is a red flag. It can be a sign of love bombing: an early flood of intense affection and attention used to win someone’s trust quickly. That’s often before either person really knows the other.
That, in turn, can point to a narcissistic or otherwise controlling partner.
Noticing several of these signs, and feeling drained or suffocated by the relationship, is a reasonably reliable indicator that your boyfriend is clingy. No single sign proves it.
So, how do you deal with clingy behavior? Is there a way to discuss this with your boyfriend or is it best to just break up?
But before the how comes the why. Why does clingy behavior develop in the first place, and what’s the root cause of clinginess?
Knowing this will make it easier to know how to deal with clingy behavior.
The Causes of Clinginess
Clinginess is best understood in the context of attachment styles, specifically an anxious attachment style.
Four features of an anxious attachment style are often behind clingy behavior:
- Low self-esteem: A belief, formed in childhood, that you are not worthy of love.
- Fear of rejection and abandonment: Expecting a partner to leave, then acting in ways that make it happen.
- Lack of boundaries: Feeling responsible for a partner’s moods and struggling to respect other people’s limits.
- Emotional dependence: Relying on others to soothe distress you never learned to soothe yourself.
1. Low Self-Esteem
A child whose needs were not appropriately met may develop a lasting belief: that they are not worthy of love and don’t matter. That belief becomes the core of low self-esteem.
Psychologists call the underlying mechanism an internal working model: a mental template of the self and of close relationships, built from early caregiving experiences. It isn’t fixed, but it shapes how a person reads closeness and separation well into adulthood.
2. Fear of Rejection and Abandonment
These beliefs continue into adulthood. Although they want to be loved and valued, their low self-esteem means they expect their partner to eventually reject or leave them.
They start watching for signs that confirm it.
It’s like a self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that ends up making itself come true. Because they believe they’re unlovable, they behave in ways (clingy, obsessive, jealous) that make it more likely their partner actually will leave.
This then confirms their belief that they’re unlovable.
3. Lack of Boundaries
Low self-worth often comes with a lack of boundaries: confusion about who you are, and feeling overly responsible for how other people feel.
If a partner seems unhappy or distant, a person without boundaries assumes it’s their fault.
Weak boundaries cut both ways, too. Someone who doesn’t have strong boundaries also struggles to respect or understand anyone else’s.
Constant calling and texting, keeping tabs on someone, and wanting all your time with one person all point to the same lack of boundaries.
4. Emotional Dependence
Clingy people often never learned, growing up, how to soothe their own distress. Instead, they rely on other people to do it for them.
They’re desperately seeking the approval and love they didn’t get enough of as children. That’s what makes them emotionally dependent on others.
No amount of love fixes it, though. Even constant validation can’t reach an inner sense of unworthiness that has nothing to do with a partner’s behavior.
Other people simply can’t fill that void. The only lasting fix is for the clingy person to build self-love and self-worth that doesn’t depend on anyone else.
In a nutshell: Many clingy people have an anxious attachment style (or at least many of the features of this attachment style), which leads to insecure and clingy behavior. It’s a coping strategy for dealing with the excessive anxiety they experience in relationships.
Clingy Behavior vs. Dependent Personality
Attachment theory isn’t the only framework that explains a strong need for closeness and reassurance. Psychologists also describe a related but distinct pattern called dependent personality.
The difference matters. It can predict whether clingy behavior eases over time or stays exactly the same.
A Pattern Tied to One Relationship
The signs described above draw mainly on attachment theory. A person’s attachment style forms in childhood, shaped by how consistently a caregiver responded to their needs.
It continues to shape adult relationships. Because this pattern is built from a specific history, it should respond to a specific partner’s behavior.
The relationship itself is the variable. A securely attached, consistently reassuring partner should ease anxious behavior over time. An unpredictable or withdrawing partner, on the other hand, should make it worse.
This is close to the advice already given here: communication, consistent boundaries, and therapy all work by changing how safe the relationship actually feels. That responsiveness is the key variable.
Nothing about this pattern is fixed in childhood forever, since it keeps responding to what happens now.
A Pattern That Shows Up Everywhere
Dependent personality describes something different: a general trait, not tied to one relationship, involving an excessive need to be taken care of.
Clinical diagnostic criteria describe this generality directly. They include difficulty making everyday decisions without reassurance, and urgently seeking a new relationship as a source of care when a close one ends.
Unlike attachment-driven clinginess, this pattern tends to show up in similar form across friendships, family, and work relationships, not just with one partner.
That gives a useful test. If clingy behavior eases when a partner becomes more responsive, attachment anxiety is the likelier explanation. If the same neediness shows up with friends, family, and colleagues regardless of how responsive they are, a broader pattern may be at play.
Either test can help make sense of a specific relationship.
| Feature | Attachment-driven clinginess | Dependent personality |
|---|---|---|
| Scope | Tied to one relationship | Shows up across friendships, family, and romance |
| Origin | Built from a specific caregiving history; can shift with new relationship experience | A stable, trait-like characteristic |
| With a more responsive partner | Tends to ease | Stays much the same |
| Typical features | Fear of abandonment; strong need for closeness and reassurance | Trouble deciding without advice; submissiveness; urgent search for a new relationship when one ends |
| Most useful help | Communication, boundaries, couples therapy | Individual therapy aimed at self-worth outside any one partner |
Clinginess that has calmed down since a partner started feeling more secure points to attachment anxiety, the pattern described throughout this article. Clinginess that hasn’t shifted no matter how much reassurance he gets is worth raising with a therapist directly.
None of this requires a diagnosis to be useful. Simply noticing which pattern fits can show which kind of help is likely to work: communication and boundaries, or professional support.
Esther Perel on Neediness and Control
Licensed marriage and family therapist Esther Perel is the author of Mating in Captivity and the host of the podcast Where Should We Begin? She has counseled many couples caught in the same push and pull between neediness and withdrawal that clingy behavior can produce.
Her sessions offer a rare close-up view of how these patterns actually play out between two real people.
When Neediness Masks a Deeper Fear
In one episode, Perel works with a caller who swings between two roles. Sometimes he becomes needy and over-attentive, because he doesn’t feel he deserves his partner’s attention.
Other times, he withdraws and loses interest, pushing people away instead.
As Perel explains, these aren’t opposite personalities. They’re “two sides of the same fear,” both defending against the same underlying anxiety about being truly seen. That reframing matters here too: what looks like simple clinginess can be the same anxiety in a different outfit. The parallel runs deep.
She traces his clinging back to an old effort to win validation from an emotionally unavailable father. His retreat from closeness, she suggests, protected him from repeating a childhood sense of responsibility for his mother’s distress after his parents divorced. That history still echoes.
Notably, Perel observes that this pattern rarely showed up in the caller’s long friendships.
In her words, “the stakes never feel that high” there, since being lovable is only on the line in romantic attachment (watch the episode).
When Neediness Becomes a Warning Sign
Perel is equally willing to name when apparent neediness tips into something more serious.
In a separate episode, a caller describes her partner as jealous, possessive, controlling, and suffocating. That’s a different claim.
Perel tells her bluntly that traits like these won’t change after only a few months together.
She calls his early request that the caller cut off contact with her friends and family “a bold ask” she would not trust.
As Perel warns, isolating a partner from her support network is itself a way of making her dependent (watch the episode). The request itself was the tell.
For a reader unsure whether they’re seeing ordinary insecurity or something more serious, that combination of speed, control, and isolation is the clearest signal.
Read together, these two conversations echo a caution already raised in this article.
Persistent neediness on its own isn’t control, but jealousy, isolation, or fast escalation alongside it are worth taking seriously.
How to Deal With a Clingy Boyfriend
As the partner of a clingy boyfriend, there are things you can do to help him.
The most important thing, though, is for him to address the root cause of his anxiety. That means working toward a more secure attachment.
Because Hannah loved her partner, she wasn’t willing to let him go. But she did tell him he’d need help for his behavior, or she couldn’t continue the relationship.
He agreed. They’re working through it together.
So here’s the first suggestion: help him realize that his relationship anxiety is an unhealthy coping mechanism. It’s putting real strain on your relationship.
That can be a tricky conversation, since he may hear it as rejection or criticism. Four steps can help:
- Communicate: Name the specific behaviors calmly and without blame, and say what you value about him.
- Establish boundaries: Say how you want to be loved, and return to what you agreed when the behavior recurs.
- Consider therapy: Encourage individual or couples therapy to work on the attachment pattern.
- Check your own attachment style: Your style interacts with his, so understand your side too.
1. Communicate
Make a note of which specific behaviors are hard to deal with, and how they make you feel. Then say so.
Communicate this to your boyfriend clearly and assertively, but with support, not blame.
Let him know you care about him and want to be together. Some of the behaviors are simply too much.
You can also remind him of what you value about him and the relationship.
This matters more than it might seem. Black (2026) asked 197 cohabiting couples to complete short daily surveys for two weeks.
On days when anxiously attached people saw their partner as more committed than usual, they felt more loved and less worried. The pattern was especially strong in anxious men.
The study cannot prove that perceived commitment caused the better mood. Even so, a steady sense of a partner’s commitment seems to calm anxious attachment (Black, 2026).
2. Establish Boundaries
Establish boundaries, i.e., tell him how you want to be loved and where you draw the line.
For example, you could set boundaries around:
- Contact: How often he texts and calls.
- Time apart: Spending time without each other.
- Privacy: Looking through your phone, which is unacceptable.
When he behaves in a clingy way, remind him of what you spoke about, that you care about him, but that independence and trust are important for a healthy relationship.
A boundary is not the same as isolation. You set a boundary on what you will accept, and you apply it consistently. Isolation works the other way: a controlling partner imposes limits on you, such as pressuring you to cut off friends.
Isolation also tends to escalate rather than settle once you go along with it.
3. Consider Therapy
Encourage him to seek therapy for his attachment difficulties, or go to couples therapy together.
Couples therapy that focuses on attachment treats his need for reassurance as a signal of fear, not a character flaw. The work is to help both partners express that underlying fear safely, rather than simply asking him to stop the behavior.
The evidence points the same way.
Burgess Moser and colleagues (2016) followed 32 couples through emotionally focused couple therapy, an attachment-based approach. Session by session, falling attachment anxiety went hand in hand with rising relationship satisfaction (Burgess Moser et al., 2016).
Individual therapy adds something different. A steady, non-judgmental therapist can become a kind of practice relationship. It is a safe place to test out his fear of rejection and, over time, revise it.
He should also spend time on himself: who he is, what his hobbies are, and what he wants in life outside his relationships.
4. Take Into Account Your Own Attachment Style and Insecurities
Your attachment style interacts with his. If you’re more avoidant, for example, his clingy behavior might be especially hard for you to tolerate.
Understanding your own attachment style helps you see how much of the relationship’s dynamic comes from each side.
Managing clingy behavior is possible. It takes both people committed to the relationship, willing to build trust, and willing to practice open communication and boundary-setting.
But there’s a fine line between clingy and controlling behavior. If his clinginess starts to feel like control, proceed with caution.
Watch for the early warning signs of a controlling man. Pay attention to his behavior and language. Notice whether narcissistic traits show up alongside the clinginess.
If they do, what looks like clinginess is more likely an early sign of control and abuse.
Critical Evaluation
Most of this article draws on one woman’s account and on attachment theory. Research gives firmer footing, and it also shows where the label “clingy” falls short.
Clinginess Versus Control
Clinginess and control can look alike from the outside. Both can involve frequent contact and close monitoring. Their motives differ.
Anxious attachment centers on fear of losing a valued partner and a wish to stay close (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). It is not a wish to dominate. A review of dependent personality (Bornstein, 1992) likewise found its defining features to be excessive help-seeking, submissiveness, and separation anxiety, not exploitativeness.
Behavior reads as control, rather than just clinginess, when you see signs like these:
- Speed: The relationship escalates unusually fast, such as exclusivity demanded within a few dates.
- Punishment: Disappointment turns into demanding, punishing, or accusatory reactions.
- Isolation: Jealousy comes with attempts to separate you from friends, family, or other relationships.
- Surveillance: Monitoring crosses into going through your phone or tracking your whereabouts.
None of this works as a firm checklist. Read the pattern over time, through his ongoing behavior and language, not from one incident.
Clingy motives are not always benign, either. Cole and Stonebrook (2025) surveyed 549 partnered adults about why people deceive their partners. Attachment anxiety was linked to deception aimed at gaining attention.
Unexpectedly, it was also weakly linked to deception meant to cause harm (Cole & Stonebrook, 2025). This is one correlational study, so read it as a first hint, not a finding.
Contemporary Research
Daily-diary studies track the same people day by day, so they show how reassurance-seeking plays out in real time.
Evraire, Dozois, and Wilde (2022) followed 110 heterosexual couples in a daily diary study. People higher in attachment anxiety sought more reassurance. The results were not simple, though.
For anxiously attached women, seeking reassurance predicted lower trust the next day. It seemed to backfire. Yet these women reported higher trust when their male partners sought reassurance from them (Evraire et al., 2022).
A longer study asked where this pattern leads. Lefebvre and colleagues (2026) followed 263 couples for a year. Attachment insecurity predicted lower satisfaction in both partners.
The link ran partly through demand/withdraw communication, where one partner pushes for reassurance and the other pulls away (Lefebvre et al., 2026).
A year-long study of 263 couples carries more weight than same-day snapshots. Even so, these are single studies, not meta-analyses, so the findings are promising rather than settled.
Is “Clingy” a Clinical Term?
“Clingy” is not a clinical term. It has no agreed definition, no validated cut-off score, and no criteria that separate it from ordinary reassurance-seeking.
Informally, it blends two better-defined ideas: anxious attachment and dependent personality. They do not fully overlap, and neither maps neatly onto a single everyday label.
That matters in practice. Frequent texting, jealousy, and wanting more time together are common and often welcome in secure relationships. Applying the label too freely risks treating ordinary closeness as a problem.
There is a second limit. Most advice on clingy partners, including this article’s main example, rests on one partner’s description of the other.
McCrae (2018) reviewed single-source personality assessments. Single-source reports carry substantial method bias. One person’s account of another agrees only weakly to moderately with that person’s self-report or with other informants’ accounts (McCrae, 2018).
So Hannah’s story is a useful illustration, but it cannot show whether her partner has an anxious attachment style, let alone a personality disorder. Studies that assess both partners directly would give firmer answers.
Who Gets Called Clingy?
The label is not applied evenly. In the diary study above, the same behavior had different effects depending on who did it.
Anxiously attached women who sought reassurance reported lower trust the next day. Yet those women reported higher trust when their male partners sought reassurance from them.
The same behavior may read as clingy from one partner. From the other, it may read as welcome. All of the couples were heterosexual, so the pattern may differ elsewhere.
Men face a version of this too. In four experiments, Edelblum and Warren (2024) found that men who posted often on social media were judged as more feminine. Perceived neediness explained the effect, and posting often did not change how women were judged (Edelblum & Warren, 2024).
Together, these findings suggest “clingy” is not a neutral description. Who is allowed to want closeness openly shapes who gets the label.
References
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226
Black, A. E. (2026). Examining the association between perceived partner commitment and relationship feelings among anxiously attached people at the daily level. The Journal of Social Psychology, 166(5), 632–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2025.2550025
Bornstein, R. F. (1992). The dependent personality: Developmental, social, and clinical perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.3
Burgess Moser, M., Johnson, S. M., Dalgleish, T. L., Lafontaine, M.-F., Wiebe, S. A., & Tasca, G. A. (2016). Changes in relationship-specific attachment in emotionally focused couple therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42(2), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12139
Carnelley, K. B., Hart, C. M., Vowels, L. M., & Thomas, T. T. (2026). Attachment, perceived partner phubbing, and retaliation: A daily diary study. Journal of Personality, 94(3), 431–445. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.70012
Cole, T., & Stonebrook, K. (2025). Deceptive hearts: Insecure attachment and motives underlying deception in romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 32(3), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.70020
Edelblum, A. B., & Warren, N. B. (2024). Real men don’t share (online): Perceived neediness and the frequent-posting femininity stereotype. European Journal of Marketing, 58(2), 572–589. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-12-2022-0883
Evraire, L. E., Dozois, D. J. A., & Wilde, J. L. (2022). The contribution of attachment styles and reassurance seeking to trust in romantic couples. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 18(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.3059
Kim, K. J., Feeney, B. C., & Jakubiak, B. K. (2018). Touch reduces romantic jealousy in the anxiously attached. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(7), 1019–1041. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517702012
Lefebvre, A.-A., Brassard, A., Jean, M., Daspe, M.-È., Lafontaine, M.-F., & Péloquin, K. (2026). The role of communication in romantic attachment and relationship satisfaction: A dyadic longitudinal study. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 52(2), Article e70127. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.70127
McCrae, R. R. (2018). Method biases in single-source personality assessments. Psychological Assessment, 30(9), 1160–1173. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000566
