- These are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set up.
- The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).
- Case studies are
in-depth investigations
of a single person,
group, event or
community.
- Case studies are
widely used in
psychology and amongst
the best-known ones
carried out were by
Sigmund Freud. He
conducted very detailed
investigations into the
private lives of his
patients in an attempt
to both understand and
help them overcome their
illnesses.
- Case studies provide
rich qualitative data
and have high levels of
ecological validity.
- Correlation
means
association -
more precisely
it is a measure
of the extent to
which two
variables are
related.
- If an
increase in one
variable tends
to be associated
with an increase
in the other
then this is
known as a
positive
correlation.
- If an
increase in one
variable tends
to be associated
with a decrease
in the other
then this is
known as a
negative
correlation.
- A zero
correlation
occurs when
there is no
relationship
between
variables.
| |
| Interview |
Questionnaire |
- Unstructured
(informal) interviews
are like a casual
conversation. There are
no set questions and the
participant is given the
opportunity to raise
whatever topics he/she
feels are relevant and
ask them in their own
way. In this kind of
interview much
qualitative (i.e.
descriptive) data is
likely to be collected.
- Structured
(formal) interviews
are like a job
interview. There is a
fixed, predetermined set
of questions that are
put to every participant
in the same order and in
the same way. The
interviewer stays within
their role and maintains
social distance from the
interviewee.
|
- Questionnaires
can be thought of as
a kind of written
interview. They can
be carried out face
to face, by
telephone or post.
- The questions
asked can be open
ended, allowing
flexibility in the
respondent's
answers, or they can
be more tightly
structured requiring
short answers or a
choice of answers
from given
alternatives.
- The choice of
questions is
important because of
the need to avoid
bias or ambiguity in
the questions,
‘leading’ the
respondent, or
causing offence.
|
| Observations |
Observations |
- Covert
observations are
when the researcher
pretends to be an
ordinary member of
the group and
observes in secret.
There could be
ethical problems or
deception and
consent with this
particular method of
observation.
- Overt
observations are
when the researcher
tells the group he
or she is conducting
research (i.e. they
know they are being
observed).
- Natural:
Here spontaneous
behavior is
recorded in a
natural setting.
-
Controlled:
behavior is
observed under
controlled
laboratory
conditions (e.g.
Bandura Bobo
doll).
-
Participant:
Here the
observer has
direct contact
with the group
of people they
are observing.
-
Non-participant
(aka "fly on
the wall): The
researcher does
not have direct
contact with the
people being
observed.
| |
| Content Analysis |
Pilot Study |
- Content analysis
is a research tool
used to indirectly
observe the presence
of certain words,
images or concepts
within the media
(e.g.
advertisements,
books films etc.).
For example, content
analysis could be
used to study
sex-role
stereotyping.
- Researchers
quantify (i.e.
count) and analyze
(i.e. examine) the
presence, meanings
and relationships of
words and concepts,
then make inferences
about the messages
within the media,
the writer(s), the
audience, and even
the culture and time
of which these are a
part.
- To conduct a
content analysis on
any such media, the
media is coded or
broken down, into
manageable
categories on a
variety of levels -
word, word sense,
phrase, sentence, or
theme - and then
examined.
- A pilot
study is an
initial
run-through of
the procedures
to be used in an
investigation;
it involves
selecting a few
people and
trying out the
study on them.
It is possible
to save time,
and in some
cases, money, by
identifying any
flaws in the
procedures
designed by the
researcher.
- A pilot
study can help
the researcher
spot any
ambiguities
(i.e. unusual
things) or
confusion in the
information
given to
participants or
problems with
the task
devised.
- Sometimes
the task is too
hard, and the
researcher may
get a floor
effect, because
none of the
participants can
score at all or
can complete the
task – all
performances are
low. The
opposite effect
is a ceiling
effect, when the
task is so easy
that all achieve
virtually full
marks or top
performances and
are “hitting the
ceiling”.
| |
published 2007
